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A HISTORY OF THE 
PEOPLE OF THE 
UNITED STATES 


BY 


WADDY THOMPSON 

tt * 

AUTHOR OF. A PRIMARY HISTORY OF THE 
UNITED STATES” AND “a HISTORY 
OF THE UNITED STATES” 


REVISED 


D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 

ATLANTA SAN ERANCISCO DALLAS 

LONDON 


£.m 

A 

T 

\°\%\ 


Copyright, 1929 
By D. C. Heath & Co. 

2 b 9 


f b&SeA^wt^u.s.a. 

©CIA 5420 


PREFACE 



A 


r. 

cr~ 

4 


i? 

The spirit called Americanism, when lodged in the hearts and 
' minds of our boys and girls, prepares the way for making them more 
patriotic and more useful citizens. One of the best mediums for 
imbuing youth with this spirit is found in the study of the history of 
our country. The tendency has been in the past, however, to treat the 
subject in a provincial manner, and as a result Americanism has been 
given too narrow a scope. Upon the minds of the pupils has been left 
the impression that the United States has grown to greatness isolated 
from the rest of the world, whereas every phase of our history has been 
affected, at one time or another, by world conditions. 

In the last two decades our relations with other peoples have steadily 
grown closer. Modern inventions for making communication easy, 
such as the railroad, the steamboat, and the telegraph, have brought 
all the world nearer together. Our interests have been carried to 
other lands, and at the same time a responsibility in the management 
of world affairs has devolved upon us. The recent cataclysm, having 
its beginning in Europe yet drawing the U nited States into its vortex, 
has swept away any lingering idea that the United States is a country 
set apart, and has demonstrated that in the future, even more than in 
the past, the American people must do their share in making the world 
a fit place to live in. Democracy that has proved its success in the 
United States must be preserved. 

While the viewpoint of this text is essentially American, the au¬ 
thor has endeavored to set forth clearly the relations that have existed 
in the past between the United States and other countries in order 
that pupils may the better understand the duties and responsibilities of 
the present and the better meet the problems of the future. In this 
way alone can the spirit of Americanism be given its broadest scope. 

In the treatment of conditions in Europe that led to the World 
War the author has followed the recommendations of the committee 
on history of the United States Bureau of Education. 

Since the achievements of statesmen and soldiers have not alone 
made the greatness of the United States, but the uplifting efforts of 
the mass of men and women who constitute the citizenry have done 
at least an equal part, the accounts of the political and military phases 
of our history have been abridged so that the commercial, industrial, 
and social phases might be given their appropriate share of attention. 
The text is thus made rather a story of the everyday life of the people 

iii 


iv 


PREFACE 


In preparing the text the author has kept continually in mind the 
many advantages of the project method in the teaching of history. 
This method will be found not only in the Project Exercises at the 
end of the chapters, but constantly in the text itself to show the rela¬ 
tion between (i) the various domestic events; (2) foreign affairs and 
domestic affairs; (3) the several periods of the past; and (4) the 
present and the past. 

For many suggestions that have improved the text the author wishes 
to acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr. J. H. T. McPherson, Pro¬ 
fessor of History in the University of Georgia; Dr. Milledge L. Bon¬ 
ham, Jr., Professor of History in the Louisiana State University, and 
Mr. M. P. Hunter of the Atlanta public schools. The author was 
particularly fortunate in having the part of this manuscript relating 
to the World War reviewed by William L. Nida, Superintendent of 
Schools, River Forest, Illinois, whose mastery of the details of the 
great conflict ensures the accuracy of the necessarily brief account. 


CONTENTS 

■EBuPTER PAGE 

I. Finding New Lands in the West . i 

II. Taking over the New Lands. 16 

III. The Early English Colonies. 31 

IV. England’s Rivals in America. 46 

V. Growth of the English Colonies. 55 

VI. The English Colonies after 1660 .. 65 

VII. The Struggle between the English and the 

French. 84 

VIII. Life in the Colonies (1763). Settlement of the 

West (1769-1776). 98 

IX. Dissension between the Colonies and the 

Mother Country.108 

X. Events Leading to the Revolutionary War . . 118 

XI. The Declaration of Independence.130 

XII. The Struggle for Independence .141 

XIII. After the French Alliance . 15a 

XIV. “ The Critical Period ”.167 

XV. The Country when Washington became Presi¬ 
dent . ... 176 

XVI. Social Life in Washington’s Time.183 

XVII. Setting the New Government ik Motion .... 189 

XVIII. How Foreign Affairs Entangled America .... 195 

XIX. The Struggle for Commercial Rights .... 209 

XX. Thirty Years of Progress (1790-1820) .-. . . . 226 

XXI. How Americans Lived in 1820.242 

XXII. New Neighbors and New Problems.251 

XXIII. THe Voice of the People.259 

XXIV. The Southwest and the Northwest.271 

XXV. The United States in 1850.284 

XXVI. Life in 1850.294 

XXVII. The West and Slavery.304 

XXVIII. The South forms a Separate Government ... 315 

XXIX. Early Events of the War of*Secession. 

(1861-1862).323 

XXX. Foreign Complications, Emancipation, Conscrip¬ 
tion .338 

XXXI. How the Union Forces Won (1863-1865) .... 344 

v 




























VI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER PAGE 

XXXII. Life in the Confederacy.363 

XXXIII. Reconstruction and Reunion.371 

XXXIV. Foreign Relations; Financial Affairs .... 384 

XXXV. The Growth of the Country.388 

XXXVI. The Age of Steel and Electricity.402 

XXXVII. Government and Business.412 

XXXVIII. Europe in the Nineteenth Century.423 

XXXIX. War with Spain .. ..437 

XL. The United States a World Power.446 

XLI. The Government and the People ..456 

XLII. Germany Seeks to Dominate the World .... 469 

XLIII. The World War.481 

XLIV. The United States in the World War.496 

XLV. The Free Nations Triumphant.510 

XLVI. The Opening of a New Era.524 

Appendix 

The Declaration of Independence. i 

The Constitution. iv 

Brief Biographies of Eminent Americans. xvii 

References for Teachers and Pupils . .". xxxv 

Pronouncing Vocabulary. 1 

Index . liii 





















LIST OF MAPS 


PAGE 

Trade Routes to the East. 2 

Lands discovered by Columbus... 8 

De Soto’s Route 1539-1542 19 

Early Settlements in Maryland. 43 

West Indies. 47 

New Netherland in 1655. 50 

The Carolina Coast. 69 

Charleston Harbor. 71 

Map showing French Explorations.. . . . 86 

✓Route of Braddock’s Expedition. 92 

Central North America, 1755, at the Beginning of the French and 

Indian War (colored). facing 96 

Central North America, 1763, after the French and Indian War 

(colored). facing 96 

Reference Map for the Revolution — Northern and Middle 

States (colored). facing 134 

Sketch-Map of Boston and Bunker Hill, 1775.135 

Reference Map for the Revolution — Southern States (colored) 

facing 158 

Cornwallis’s Wandering Campaign at the South.159 

Sketch-Map of Yorktown., 162 

Land Claims of the Thirteen Original States in 1783 (colored). . 

facing 168 

Our Country in 1789. 176 

✓Lewis and Clark’s Route.205 

The United States 1810-1812 (colored) . . .. facing 206 

Lake Erie and the Surrounding Country.215 

Map Showing where People Lived in 1800 ..226 

Population in the West and South in 1820.229 

^ Route of the National Road, 1812-1840.239 

The Erie Canal.240 

The United States in 1820, showing the Missouri Compromise . 249 

The Republic of Texas.275 

The Oregon Compromise. 277 

Map of the Mexican War. 279 

Territory acquired from Mexico as a Result of the Mexican War 

(colored). facing 282 





























LIST OF MAPS 


PAGE 

Territories from which Kansas and Nebraska were Erected . . . 308 

The United States in 1861 (colored). facing 324 

Map of Campaigns in Virginia.334 

Reference Map for the Civil War, 1861-1865 (colored) . between 338-339 

Map of the Vicksburg Campaign.346 

Territorial Growth of the United States (colored) . . between 388-389 

The Westward Movement of Population.389 

“ The Cross-roads of the Pacific ”.449 

Routes Passing through the Panama Canal.452 

National Forests ..458 

Irrigation Projects. 459 

Berlin to Bagdad Railway. 475 

Battle Fronts, 1914, 1915, 1918. 51I 












A HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE 
OF THE UNITED STATES 


CHAPTER I 

FINDING NEW LANDS IN THE WEST 

Lack of Geographical Knowledge. — At the time when 
America was discovered, people were still superstitious and 
ignorant of many matters. They believed in fairies and 
witches, in giants, ogres, and other terrible monsters. They 
knew little of geography except that of Europe, the western 
part of Asia, and the northern shore of Africa. Sailors 
knew the use of the compass, but trade by water was con¬ 
fined to the Mediterranean Sea and the European coast of 
the Atlantic Ocean. The boldest seamen feared to sail 
farther west than Iceland. 1 They did not know where the 
broad Atlantic ended. They thought it was filled with 
monsters and they called it the “Sea of Darkness.” 

Trade with the East. — Stories of cities of the remote 
East (India), where there were palaces with roofs and floors 
made of gold and silver and where precious stones were 
found in great abundance, were told by travelers and filled 
men’s minds with wonder. Few Europeans had visited the 

1 Icelanders had made settlements in Greenland. Iceland is much 
nearer to Greenland than to any point in Europe. Icelanders are 
Norsemen. Their records, or sagas, tell that in 986 a.d. one of their 
vikings, Eric the Red, made a settlement in Greenland. The colony 
continued for more than four hundred years and then disappeared. 
The sagas also state that about the year 1000 Leif Ericson, the son of 
Eric the Red, visited land southwest of Greenland. Many believe 
that this land is what we now call New England. However, the 
discovery never became known over Europe and was almost forgotten 
by Icelanders themselves. They thought Greenland was a part of 
Europe. 

I 


2 HISTORY OP THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


region from which traders brought gold and silver, ivory, 
diamonds, sapphires and pearls, silks, cashmeres, muslins 
and spices. 

Products from the East were brought overland by caravans 
to the Mediterranean Sea. In 1365 the Turks had begun 
to extend their conquests in western Asia and, seizing one 



point after another along the routes of trade, threatened to 
cut off communication between Europe and Asia. The 
loss of the Eastern trade would have been a calamity to 
Europe. This danger led men to think of finding an ocean 
route to India. 

A Water Route to India. — In seeking a water route to 
India effort was first made to sail around Africa. But there 
were many difficulties to overcome because of the ignorance 
of geography. It was generally believed that the equator 
could not be crossed because the heat would be so intense 
that it would bum up any one who made the attempt. 
It was also supposed that Africa extended to the end of the 
world or else was so joined to Asia in the far-off, unknown 
parts that a ship could not sail to India. But a prince of 









FINDING NEW LANDS IN THE WEST 


3 


Portugal, who was deeply interested in the progress of 
science and who wished to increase the knowledge 
of geography by exploration, persevered. He spent so 
much time and money in sending out expeditions to 
explore the seas that he was called Prince Henry the 
Navigator. His seamen pushed their ships farther and 
farther down the western coast of Africa, and by 1471 the 
Portuguese had crossed the equator. 

Prince Henry’s zeal attracted to Portugal many able 
navigators and geographers, among whom was a young 
Italian, Christopher Columbus. 

The Spirit of Columbus. — Columbus became convinced 
that the shortest route to India was westward across the 
Atlantic Ocean. He be¬ 
lieved that the world was 
round, and that by sail¬ 
ing toward the west he 
would come to the east 
again. His idea that the 
world was round was not 
original, for some of the 
learned men of ancient 
time as well as many of 
the wise men of his own 
time held the same belief, 
yet it was still a matter 
of dispute. Almost all 
the people thought the 
world flat; and if told 
that it was round, they asked how men could walk with their 
heads down, and how rain could fall upward. 

Columbus needed money to buy and equip vessels 
with which to make a westward voyage to India. 
Prince Henry had died, so he asked aid of the king of 
Portugal, who referred the matter to a council of learned 
men. It did not occur to these men that there might be 
land, such as the American continent, in the way. They 



Christopher C«lumbus 

After a painting in the Marine Museum, 
Madrid 


4 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


believed that even if it were possible to reach India by 
sailing westward, the route would be too long. 1 Neverthe¬ 
less, the king secretly sent out ships to discover for himself 
the route suggested by Columbus. The attempt failed, 
and when Columbus learned of the king’s treachery, he at 
once left Portugal. 

Columbus next sought aid from Ferdinand and Isabella 
of Spain. These sovereigns were busily engaged in con- 



COLUMBUS ASKING THE AlD OF QUEEN ISABELLA 
After a painting by the Bohemian artist, Vaczlav Brozik 


quering Granada, the last stronghold of the Moors in 
Spain. So they also referred his plan to a council of 

1 In the matter of distance, the learned men were correct. In his 
argument for the western route Columbus made three errors: (i) He 
did not allow for another continent’s being in the way; (2) he thought 
the earth much smaller than it is; and (3) he thought that Asia ex¬ 
tended farther around the earth than it does. According to his calcula¬ 
tions, Japan was in the Atlantic Ocean, and nearer to Europe than are 
the West Indies. But for these errors, Columbus would very likely 
never have started on his voyage. 

























FINDING NEW LANDS IN THE WEST 


5 


learned men who would not be convinced by his argu¬ 
ments. Through many years he pleaded his cause, fre¬ 
quently suffering poverty as well as the taunts of those 
who looked upon him as a dreamer. At length, despairing 
of success in Spain, he was about to set out for France to 
ask aid of the king of that country, when Isabella consented 
to consider the matter. 

Columbus and Isabella. — The queen and the sailor 
came to terms. It was agreed that Columbus and his heirs 
should have the rank of admiral and viceroy of all lands 



Caravels of Columbus 

After the model shown at the Columbian Exposition, 
Chicago, 1893 


that he should discover, and that he should receive a part 
of any profits resulting from his discoveries. The rest of 
the profits were to go to Isabella who, it is said, pledged her 
crown jewels in order to raise the money for the expenses of 
the voyage. 

How the People Predicted Failure. — The best ships 
then in use were small, clumsy, and unfit for any greater 
purpose than making voyages along the coast. What 
Columbus planned to do was truly astounding to the men 
of his time. Even those who shared his belief that the 


HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


earth was round could not be sure of it. Some said that 
he might be wrong, and that if the earth should prove to be 
flat, the voyage to the end of the world would take so many 
years that one could hardly hope to get back. Scoffers 
declared that if the earth were really round, the voyage 
could not be made, since a ship in going or else in returning 
must sail uphill. Superstitious men asserted that dragons 
breathing fire, serpents with many heads, and other terrible 
creatures swarmed in the Atlantic, and that they would 
devour any crew that ventured into that unknown sea. 

First Voyage of Columbus. — Three ships, called caravels, 
were secured, the Santa Maria , the Pinta, and the Nina, 
One would hardly dare to cross the ocean in such vessels 
nowadays. In order to man the ships for the perilous 
voyage, debtors had been relieved of their debts and 
prisoners released from jail; and with ninety men in all, 
Columbus, on August 3, 1492, set sail from Palos in south¬ 
ern Spain. People on shore wept and prayed, for they had 
little hope of seeing the sailors again. The fleet was hardly 
out of sight of land before the men themselves began to 
regret their rashness, and as the little ships sailed farther 
and farther westward, discontent grew into terror. But 
Columbus kept a brave heart and would not turn back. 
Many anxious days and nights, many weary weeks passed. 
The men said to one another that they should never get back 
home, and it seemed as though nothing could prevent their 
rising in mutiny. 

The Discovery, October 12, 1492. — At last, early on 
the morning of October 12, 1 1492, land was sighted. It was 
one of the Bahama group of the West India Islands. 2 Colum¬ 
bus landed and took possession of the island in the name of 
Queen Isabella. He and his crew believed that they had 
found an island off the eastern coast of India. The crew, 

1 October 12 according to the Old Style of reckoning time; Octo 
ber 21, according to the New Style. 

2 It has never been determined which of the Bahamas Columbus 
ffst sighted. The honor is claimed for more than one of the islands. 


FINDING NEW LANDS IN THE WEST 


7 


overjoyed at the prospect of becoming rich quickly, threw 
themselves at the feet of Columbus to ask his forgiveness. 
The natives who crowded to the shore to see the strange 
ships were unlike any people the Spaniards had ever seen. 

Sailing southward, Columbus soon arrived at the great 
island now called Cuba, which he thought was the continent 
of Asia. To the east he found the island of Hayti, 
which he took to be Japan. He named this island La 
Espagnola (Hispaniola), or “Spanish land.” Then he 
decided to return to Spain to report his discovery. 

The Return. — At the end of a stormy voyage, in which 
he narrowly escaped shipwreck, Columbus reached Palos — 
the port from which he had sailed more than six months 
before. The people who had despaired of his return now 
welcomed him with joy, and were ready to believe with him 
that a western route to Asia had been found. In triumph, 
Columbus sought the king and queen. He showed many 
curiosities, among them some of the natives of the new lands. 
He called them Indians, because all eastern Asia, including 
China and Japan, was then known as India. Ferdinand 
and Isabella received Columbus with honor. 

Second Voyage. — The report that Columbus had found 
the Indies by a short route across the Atlantic caused intense 
excitement in Spain. The king and queen immediately made 
plans to secure the wealth of the country and to convert 
the natives to Christianity. When a fleet was fitted out for 
Columbus to make another voyage, there was no difficulty in 
getting men to go with him. Sons of the most distinguished 
families in Spain were eager to seek their fortunes in the 
Indies, the land of untold wealth. On the second voyage 
Columbus built on the island of Hispaniola a town which 
he named Isabella, in honor of the queen who had befriended 
him. He also explored neighboring islands, and could 
not understand why he failed to find the wonderful cities 
of Asia. 

Third Voyage. — On a third voyage Columbus did not 
steer directly for Hispaniola, but turned his ships farther 


8 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


southward in the hope of passing around China and reaching 
India itself (Hindustan). He found land, but it was part of 
what is now known as South America. Though Columbus 
knew that he had come upon a continent, he still thought 
that it was joined to Asia or separated from it by a narrow 
strait. Sickness compelled him to abandon his explorations. 



Division of the World; Fourth Voyage. — Meanwhile 
Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese sailor, had reached India 
by rounding the Cape of Good Hope, at the south of Africa. 
The pope had divided the world, giving to Portugal all 
heathen lands east of a certain line and to Spain all such 
lands west of the line, and both nations had agreed to the 
division. As the division also included the seas leading to 
the heathen lands, Spain in seeking the Indies could not use 
the route discovered by Portugal. Therefore the Spanish 
government, becoming more eager than ever to complete 
the discovery of the western route, sent Columbus on a 
fourth voyage. He searched the coast of Central America 
and Panama for the strait which he supposed lay between 










FINDING NEW LANDS IN THE WEST 9 

what he called Asia and his new continent (South America). 
He was disappointed because he did not find it, and returned 
again to Spain. 

Death of Columbus. — The life of Columbus was one of 
disappointment. After years of struggling against poverty 
and ridicule he had set out on his voyages only to fail 
to reach India, the goal of his hopes. 

Even the colony that he had planted 
on Hispaniola did not prosper. Men 
who had gone there hoping to be¬ 
come rich quickly were disappointed. 

They quarreled among themselves, 
turned the natives against them 
by their cruelty, and then blamed 
Columbus for all their troubles. 

While lying sick at Hispaniola after 
his third voyage, he was put in chains 
and sent back to Spain. The sight 
of the faithful discoverer in irons 
aroused the sympathy and indigna¬ 
tion of the Spanish people. The 
queen ordered his immediate release 
Once more he was promised all his 
rights in the Indies, but the promise 
was not kept. Broken in spirit at 
last Columbus died at Valladolid, 

Spain, in 1506. The great discoverer land, in memory of the first 
never knew that he had found a new f 1or . from England t0 visit 

America. 

world. 

The Voyages of John Cabot. — Now that Columbus had 
led the way, other navigators were not slow to cross the 
Atlantic. The first to see the mainland of North America 
was John Cabot, an Italian in the English service, whom 
Henry VII sent out to find for England a western route to 
India. Cabot sailed with a single vessel in 1497, landed, 
and claimed the country for the king of England. The 
next year, he crossed a second time to North America. 






t O HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Cabot visited the coast somewhere between Cape Breton 
and Labrador. He told of having seen great quantities 
of fish. England did not follow up these voyages, how¬ 
ever, because it was thought that Cabot had found only 
a cold, bleak part of Asia. What England wanted was 
India, the land of precious stones and spices. It was not 
until many years later that the voyages of Cabot assumed 
importance. Then England cited them as the basis of her 
claim to North America. 

How America Received its Name. — Americus Vespucius, 
an Italian, whose name in his native language was Amerigo 

Nunc veto & he^ partes flint Janus luftrata?/ 8C 
alia quana pars per AmericaVefputiumc vt inic# 
quentibus audietur)inucntaeft:quanonLvideo cur 
Arne* quis iurc vetet ab Americo inuentore fegads inge 
rieo jii) viro Amerigen quafi Arneridterramyliiie Ame 

licamdicendam:cum& Europa 8c Afia a mulierk 
bus fuaiortitafint nominsuEius Gtu Sc gentis mo# 
les exbisbinisAmmdnauigaticnibus quf (equS 
tlir liquide intdligidatm 

The Name America 

Facsimile of that part of the page in the Costnographice Introductio (1507), by 
Martin Waldseemiiller, in which the name of America is proposed for the 
New World. 

Vespucci, explored (1501-1504) the long coast line of Brazil, 
in South America. In writing to his friends he described 
the lands he had seen, and his letters were translated and 
printed in various languages. The part of South America 
already discovered by Columbus lay above the equator, 
where Asia was supposed to be. Vespucius explored land 
far south of the equator, in a region where no one had dreamed 
that land existed. Consequently, in the confused minds of 
geographers of the time, it was thought that Columbus 
had found Asia, and that Vespucius had discovered a “New 
World.” 

In 1507 a professor in a university in an obscure town 


FINDING NEW LANDS IN THE WEST 


II 


in northern Europe published a small book on geography. 
He divided the world into Europe, Asia, and Africa, the 
three parts already known for a long time, and then add Q d 
as a “fourth part” the region described by Vespucius, 
He suggested that this fourth part, having been discovered 
by Americus, should be called America. The suggestion mel 
with favor. The name, first given only to Brazil, was grad¬ 
ually extended to the continent of South America and then 
tc the continent of North America. Thus a mistake gave 
to Vespucius an honor that rightfully belonged to Columbus. 

The North American Indians. The name “Indian,” 
which Columbus gave 
to the native of Amer¬ 
ica because he thought 
that he had reached 
India, remains the 
name of the race to¬ 
day. 

Indians are usually 
tall and erect. Their 
complexion is reddish 
brown or copper color. 

They have high cheek¬ 
bones; small, deep-set 
eyes; straight, black 
hair; and little or no 
beard. So far as we 
know, the Indians were 
never a numerous 
people. In what is 
now the United States, 
their number at the 
time of the discovery 
probably did not exceed half a million — about one person 
to every six square miles of territory. Yet this sparse popu¬ 
lation was divided into many tribes, in most cases separated 
one from another by considerable areas of land. 



An Indian Village 

After a drawing by John White, now in the 
British Museum 









12 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

The Tribe. — The life of the North American Indians 
when the whites first came into contact with them was 
very different from their life to-day. All of a tribe dwelt 
together, hunted and fished together, and together made 
war upon some other tribe. The whole tribe dwelt in one 
village which was usually surrounded by a high fence, or 
palisade, made of trunks of trees. The Indian’s home 
was his wigwam. It varied from a round tent of skin or 
bark, in which a single family lived, to a house more than 
two hundred feet long and made of bark, in which twenty 
families might live . 1 

Dress. — The dress of the Indian was meager and was 
usually made of skins. Their shoes, called moccasins, were 
also made of skins. Men and women wore ornaments of 
copper, and painted their faces and bodies with many colors. 
On great days the warrior — and every man was a warrior — 
would clothe himself in robes of skin or fur, gaudily decorated 
with beads, feathers, claws and teeth of animals, snake- 
skins or even human fingers. 

Occupations, —While every Indian was a hunter and 
fisherman, only the prairie tribes of the West and the tribes 
of the far North lived entirely by hunting and fishing. 
Others depended more or less upon agriculture. To prepare 
a field for cultivation, the Indians killed the trees by burning 
or girdling. Between the charred stumps and dead trunks 
they planted the seed. The chief product was Indian com, 
or maize, though beans, pumpkins, sunflowers, and tobacco 
were also planted. Tobacco came to be important in the 
history of our country, but Europeans had never seen it until 
they found the Indians using it. The only kind of domestic 
animal in the Indian village was a small dog. Horses, 
cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs were brought to America by 
Europeans. 

Religion. — The Indians had many gods. The most 

1 In the southwestern part of the United States, mainly in New 
Mexico and Arizona, there dwelt tribes who, when the Europeans found 
them, were considerably more advanced than the other Indians of the 


FINDING NEW LANDS IN THE WEST 


13 


common belief was that the gods or spirits dwelt in the 
beasts of the forest. Some of the tribes held to nature 
worship, believing that the sun, the moon, the stars, the 
winds, rivers, mountains, and trees held spirits. 

The Indian Character. — The Indian was self-confident 
and haughty. In the presence of strangers he was polite, 
but reserved. When he made a promise, he kept it. He 
would lay down his life for a friend. He was hospitable 
and charitable. But there was another side to the Indian’s 
character. To his enemies he was cruel, revengeful, and 
treacherous. He was of a jealous, envious nature, and when 
he had not given his promise, was full of deceit. 

All Indians were warlike, tribe fighting against tribe. 
They fought with bow and arrow, club, spear, and tomahawk. 
The tomahawk was a stone hatchet. Every warrior also 
carried a stone scalping knife with which he took the scalp 
and hair from the head of his victim. The more scalps he 
had taken, the greater his fame as a warrior. Brave as 
the Indians were, they rarely fought in open battle. 
From their nature they preferred to surprise their enemy 
from behind trees and rocks, or to slay him in his sleep. 
In the dead of night they would fall upon the village of 
their foes, and setting it on fire would slay men, women, 
and children fleeing from the burning wigwams. When 
their desire for butchery was satisfied, they would take the 
survivors home to be tortured. 

How the White Men Treated the Indians. — Many of 
the early explorers and settlers were good men who wished 
to deal justly with the Indians, but others were very cruel. 
White men robbed the Indians of their land, and killed them 

United States. Each of these tribes lived in a pueblo — hence the 
name Pueblo Indians. A pueblo is a village consisting of one big 
house built of brick or stone, sometimes six stories high. In Mexico, 
Central America, and Peru were tribes still further advanced. They 
had populous cities, highly cultivated fields, and good roads. They had 
comfortable homes, well-made clothes, and finely wrought pottery. 
Precious metals were so plentiful that ornaments of many kinds and 
vessels for eating and drinking were made of gold and silver. 


14 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


on slight provocation. The Indians thirsted for revenge 
and sometimes banded together and destroyed whole settle¬ 
ments. Mutual hatred and distrust bred almost constant 
warfare. Yet traders could always find their way to the 
Indian’s heart. The eagerness of the red man for bargains, 
and his fondness for bright, showy articles, made barter with 
him very profitable. Trade with the Indians was one of the 
inducements for men to emigrate to America. Simple wares 
and worthless trinkets were exchanged for skins and furs 
which were sold at high prices in Europe. 

How the Indians Received the White Men. — The 
Indian readily accepted many of the things brought him 
by the Europeans. He discarded his clothing of skins in 
favor of blankets, and his crude utensils for the better articles 
obtained from the white men. He learned horsemanship 
with remarkable rapidity. He soon became expert in the 
use of the firearms furnished him by traders, and turned 
them with skillful aim against hostile tribes of his own race 
and against the white race. 

The hostility of the races had a large influence on the 
future of America. It forced the colonists to build settle¬ 
ments close together for the sake of protection, and it accus¬ 
tomed them to the hardships of war. At the proper time 
they were able to present a compact and sturdy front in 
their contest for independence. 

Topics and Questions 

1. At the time of the discovery of America people were ignorant 
of many matters. The Mediterranean Sea seemed to be the center of 
the world. What hardy sailors pushed out toward the west before 
the year 1000? What ideas kept other Europeans from following the 
Norseman? 

2. What did people in Europe believe about the countries to the 
east? What made up the cargoes coming from the East? Who in¬ 
terfered with this trade and what could be done to save it? 

3. What prince undertook to push the discovery of a new route? 
Why did he spend so much time and money for this purpose? How 
far south had the Portuguese sailed by 1471? 

4 k What effect did Prince Henry's zeal have upon other countries? 


FINDING NEW LANDS IN THE WEST 15 

What young man was drawn to his court from Italy? What ideas did 
Columbus already have about the size and the shape of the world? 

5o What did men think of Columbus when he explained his plan of 
going to the east by sailing to the west? What mistakes had Colum¬ 
bus made in his calculations, and how did they help his enterprise? 
On what terms did Queen Isabella finally aid Columbus? 

6. Why did Columbus need courage and conviction for his enter¬ 
prise? Compare a caravel of the .time of Columbus with ships now 
used for ocean travel. Tell what sort of crew he was able to ship. 

7. When did Columbus first see land? What land did he see? 
Where did Columbus believe himself to be? Picture the return and 
welcome of Columbus when he carried his news to Spain. Did he tell 
of discovering a New World or of finding another way to India? 

8. What town did Columbus found on his second voyage? Why 
did Columbus steer so far south on his third voyage, and where did he 
land? Why was he sent on a fourth voyage, and what did he accom¬ 
plish? Did Columbus ever know what he had done for the world? 

9. How did England get the first claim to the mainland of North 
America? Why did that country neglect to follow up the discovery 
of Cabot? 

10. Whose name was given to the New World? Did any one in¬ 
tend to defraud Columbus of the honor which was given to Vespucius? 

Project Exercises 

1. Study a map of the world to see what ways, besides the overland 
route, one may go from Europe to the Far East. 

2. Write an essay describing the life of the North American Indians. 

Important Date: 

October 12, 1492. Discovery of America. 



A Tomahawk 



CHAPTER II 


TAKING OVER THE NEW LANDS 

Center of Commerce Moves Westward. — From ancient 
times commerce had centered around the Mediterranean 
Sea. With the discovery of a water route around Africa 
to India and the finding of lands in America, the centers of 
trade and commerce shifted to ports of the Atlantic coast of 
Europe. Portugal, Spain, France, England, and Holland, 
all bordering on the Atlantic, became the great commercial 
and colonizing countries. Except for settlements in Brazil, 
in South America, Portugal confined her efforts at colonizing 
to the Far East. Spain, France, England, and Holland 
were the nations chiefly concerned with the colonization of 
America. 

Spanish Explorations and Settlements. — Before Colum¬ 
bus died gold had been found on the island of Hispaniola 
(Hayti), where he had planted a settlement. Spaniards 
flocked there because they took the finding of gold as proof 
that the newly discovered land lay near Asia, where every¬ 
body believed there was a fabulous wealth of precious metals 
and precious stones. As is usual when a rush is made to a 
new-found place, in the hope of making fortunes quickly 
without work, the bad men outnumbered the good. The 
island became the scene of much lawlessness and turmoil, 
yet the colony grew, and from it Spanish settlements spread 
to America. The exploits of the Spanish adventurers 
read like spirited romances. Usually in small bands, they 
sailed unknown seas, crossed mighty rivers, and penetrated 
trackless forests and jungles. 

Discovery of Florida. — In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon, 
who had grown wealthy in the West Indies but had also 

16 


TAKING OVER THE NEW LANDS 


X7 




Ponce de Leon 
A fter an engraving in “ Herrera,” 1728. 


grown old, set out from Porto Rico to find a fountain, 
whose waters, according to an old story, would give per¬ 
petual youth to all who drank of 
them, and which, according to 
tales told by the Indians, was 
located to the north of the West 
Indies* Sighting land on Easter 
Sunday, De Leon called it Florida, 
because in Spanish Easter is 
known as Pascua Florida. He 
claimed the country for Spain. 

De Leon and his party were the 
first white men positively known 
to have set foot on soil now 
within the limits of the United 
States. 

Discovery of the Pacific Ocean. 

— In the same year, Nunez de Balboa, in searching for 
gold on the Isthmus of Darien (now Panama), came to a 
sea that stretched far away in 
the distance. Wading into the 
water to the depth of his thighs, 
Balboa claimed possession of the 
sea and all lands bordering upon 
it in the name of the sovereign 
of Spain. He called it the South 
Sea; he and his companions did 
not know that they saw the 
immense Pacific Ocean. They 
still thought that Asia was near. 

Conquest of Mexico and 
Peru. — Reports had reached 
Cuba of a country to the west, 
The country was Mexico, and in 
with a body of soldiers, invaded 
Cortez found in Mexico great 


Vasco Nunez Balboa 


rich in precious mptals. 
1519 Hernando Cortez, 
this land of promise. 


Quantities of gold and silver and a condition of life far 


18 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


superior to that of the natives of the West Indies (see 
note, page 12). Cortez conquered Mexico and despoiled it 
of its riches. Later Francisco Pizarro conquered Peru, 
a country richer than Mexico. Peru, like Mexico, was 
robbed of its wealth. 

The Globe Circumnavigated. — Meanwhile Spain in her 
race with Portugal for India put forth greater effort to 
discover a short route to Asia by 
way of the west. Ferdinand 
Magellan sailed from Spain in 
1519, to search for a passage around 
South America. He sailed along 
the eastern coast of that continent 
to its southern limit, and, passing 
through the strait that now bears 
his name, came out into an ocean 
which he called the Pacific. In 
crossing the ocean on the slow-going 
vessels food gave out and the 
sufferings of the crew were intense. 
Magellan was killed in a fight with 
natives of the Philippine Islands. 
One of his vessels arrived in Spain 

This monument marks the spot in 1522, having returned by way 
where Magellan was killed in a battle . .. „ - ~ , TT m, . 

with the natives of the Philippine Ot the Gape OI Good Hope. I hlS 

Islands ' little vessel, the only one left of 

the fleet, brought back only eighteen of the more than two 
hundred men who three years before had started on their 
perilous enterprise. The voyage proved that a wide ocean 
separates America from Asia, and it settled beyond question 
that the earth is round, for the ship had sailed out to the 
west and had come back from the east. 

The Atlantic Coast Explored. — Magellan’s route to Asia 
was too long: the Portuguese already had a much shorter 
way around the Cape of Good Hope. Yet there was still 
hope that somewhere to the north of Florida a short passage 
might be found. Efforts to find the passage carried the 



Magellan Monument on 
Mactan Island 











TAKING OVER THE NEW LANDS 


19 


exploration of the coast line farther and farther north. 
By 1525 the Atlantic coast from the end of South America 
to Labrador in North America had been explored by the 
Spaniards. 

Hernando de Soto. — The search for gold went on. Hopes 
of finding in the north countries equally as rich as those 
found in the south inflamed the Spaniards. Hernando de 
Soto obtained the king’s permission to conquer the parts of 
America north of Mexico. De Soto crossed the ocean with 



an army of volunteers, many of whom were from the best 
families of Spain. He landed (1539) at Tampa Bay, on the 
coast of Florida. He spent three years in his search for 

>ld, ‘and during that time he traversed what is now Georgia, 
Alabama, and Mississippi, and crossing the great Mississippi 
River, 1 he pushed on through Louisiana into Arkansas, 

1 Whether De Soto was the discoverer of the Mississippi is a matter 
of dispute. Some give the credit of the discovery to other Spaniards 
who had eailier explored the region along the Gulf of Mexico. 












20 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


probably going as far north as Missouri. The army had 
endured toil, want, and attacks of the natives; yet no gold 
had been found. The expedition, much reduced in num¬ 
bers, returned through Louisiana to the Mississippi River. 
De Soto died, and in the darkness of night his com¬ 
panions sunk the body in the river to conceal his death 
from the Indians. The survivors of the once proud army, 
floating in boats down the Mississippi, found safety in the 
Spanish settlements on the Mexican shore. 

Francisco de Coronado. — Francisco de Coronado set 
out northward from Mexico to find the seven wealthy 
cities of Cibola, about which he had heard wonderful re¬ 
ports. These cities proved to be only seven pueblo villages. 
Yet, the expedition was not an entire failure, for Coronado 
succeeded in crossing Arizona and New Mexico. He went 
north probably as far as Kansas and Nebraska. Though 
De Soto and Coronado found no gold, they had proved that 
a wide continent extends from Florida to California. It was 
believed that the continent dwindled to a narrow neck of 
land somewhere near Virginia. Consequently the rivers 
and bays from Virginia northward were searched for many 
years longer in hopes of finding the passage to Asia. 

African Slavery. — The Spaniards had tried working 
Indians as slaves in their mines and on their sugar plan¬ 
tations, but the natives, chafing in captivity and unused to 
the exacting labor imposed upon them, died in great num¬ 
bers. The Spaniards found better laborers in negroes 
brought from Africa, for negroes are easily managed and are 
capable of the hardest physical labor. In this way negro 
slavery was introduced into America. 

Conditions in Europe. — While explorations in America 
were taking place, conditions in Europe were changing. 
A religious movement known as the Reformation — one 
of the most important movements of history — spread over 
western Europe, where everybody had been Catholic, and 
caused a great schism from the church. Those who left 
the Catholic Church came to be called Protestants. 


TAKING OVER THE NEW LANDS 21 

Many of the cruel ideas of the Middle Ages had not passed 
away. Frequent wars followed on account of the Reforma¬ 
tion, and even in times of peace Catholic or Protestant, 
whichever was in power, put to death persons of the oppo¬ 
site faith. 



The New World according to a Map-Maker of 1540 


All Spain remained Catholic. Holland became Protes¬ 
tant. In France, the Protestant (Huguenot) faith was 
strong, though not in the majority. In England, first one 
faith, and then the other, was in the ascendency, until, 
finally, in the reign of the great queen Elizabeth 1 Protestant¬ 
ism prevailed. 

The Balance of Power. — The king of Spain had become 
the mightiest monarch of Europe, for besides Spain he ruled 
over other European kingdoms. The French and English 

1 Elizabeth reigned from 1558 to 1603. 








22 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

sovereigns, fearing that the Spanish king might by further 
extension of his rule over Europe become so powerful as to 
endanger their kingdoms, waged constant war against him 
When differences of religion ceased to furnish a motive, the 
desire to maintain the balance of power became the cause ot 
most wars in Europe. 

Corsairs Assault Spanish Commerce. — Nations had little 
respect for the rights of one another. In time of war or 
peace, English, French, and Dutch corsairs plundered the 
Spanish settlements in the New World and seized treasure 
ships bound for Spain. The corsairs further injured Spanish 
commerce by illicit trading. Spain from the first had 
forbidden other nations trading with her colonies, but she 
was powerless against the corsairs who smuggled goods into 
Spanish American ports and sold them to the colonists. 
Often the colonists had no choice, for if they were not readv 
to run the risk of illegal buying, the corsairs forced them to 
do so. The desire to enrich themselves was not the sole 
motive of the corsairs. They were usually commissioned 
by their sovereign, and their assaults upon Spanish com¬ 
merce were often made in the interest of their country. 
Even when there was no war, they sailed from their home 
ports with the encouragement of their king and their fellow 
citizens. Corsairing was in that age considered proper. 

The French Turn to America. — French fishermen had 
early followed in the track of John Cabot to the fishing 
banks of Newfoundland. For a long time, however, France 
was unable, because of war with Spain, to undergo the cost 
of exploration. Finally the French government endeavored 
to gain a foothold in America. The king, Francis I, had 
looked with envy upon the mines of wealth which his Span¬ 
ish rival owned beyond the seas. Though a Catholic him¬ 
self, the king declined to submit to the pope’s division of 
the world between Spain and Portugal. He said, “The kings 
of Spain and Portugal are taking possession of the New 
World without giving me a part; I should be glad to see the 
article of Adam’s will which gives them America.” 


TAKING OVER THE NEW LANDS 


23 


Explorations of Cartier. — So when opportunity came, 
he sent Jacques Cartier on a voyage of discovery and explo¬ 
ration. Cartier, in 1534-35, cruised along the coast of 
Newfoundland and Labrador and ascended the St. Lawrence 
River as far as Montreal. Though his attempts to plant 
a colony in Canada failed, he claimed all the country for 
France. 

Huguenots in South Carolina and Florida. — Later, 
Gaspard de Coligny, a French nobleman of the Huguenot 
faith, tried to found in America a colony for the purpose of 



St. Augustine, Florida, as founded by Menendez 

From an old picture of the earliest town in the United States. 


providing a refuge for his people, who were suffering greatly 
in the religious wars. Having obtained permission from 
Charles IX, the new king of France, Coligny sent out a 
party under Jean Ribault, in 1562, to find a suitable place 
for a settlement. The Frenchmen entered Port Royal 
harbor, in South Carolina. Here they erected a fort which 
they called Charlesfort, in honor of their king. Ribault 
left thirty men to hold the fort, while he returned to France 
to bring out a colony. The men who remained at Port 
Royal spent their time in a fruitless search for gold instead 
of working to raise crops for themselves, and when starvation 
threatened them they abandoned their settlement. 



24 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


Nothing daunted, Coligny sent out, two years later, an¬ 
other party of Huguenots under Rene de Laudonniere. 
They built a fort on the St. Johns River, not far from the 
present city of Jacksonville, and named it Caroline for the 
French king, the Latin name for Charles being Carolus. 
Ribault joined the colony, bringing provisions and men, 
women and children. 

The king of Spain looked upon the French occupation of 
Florida with great alarm; the foreign fort, so near the West 
Indies, threatened his rich provinces and made easier as¬ 
saults upon his commerce. He sent Pedro Menendez de 
Aviles with a strong force to destroy the Huguenots. Reach¬ 
ing the coast of Florida in 1565, the Spaniards at once began 
to make a fortification. This work was the beginning of 
St. Augustine, the oldest city in the United States. 

Menendez fell upon the Huguenots and overpowered them. 
He showed them little mercy, and but few escaped. Revenge 
for the massacre followed. It did not come through the 
French king, a timid man, afraid to risk a war with Spain, 
but it came through a citizen of France, Dominique de 
Gourgues, who sold his estates in order to raise money for 
the expedition. Gourgues and his men, upon landing in 
Florida, formed an alliance with an Indian tribe against 
whom the Spaniards had made war. The French and 
Indians surprised the Spaniards and in the assault every man 
of the garrison was killed, except about fifty, whom Gourgues 
hanged. Soon after accomplishing the object of his visit 
Gourgues sailed away. The Spaniards remained in posses¬ 
sion of Florida. 

The French in Canada. — The French government again 
turned its attention to Canada, a region now furnishing a 
valuable trade in skins and furs, besides the trade in fish. 
Among those who went to Canada under the patronage of 
the king of France was Samuel de Champlain. There was 
no nobler character connected with the early colonization 
of America than Champlain. In 1608 he founded Quebec, 
the first permanent French settlement in America. 


TAKING OVER THE NEW LANDS 


25 



Since the French claimed that their possessions in America, 
which they called New France, extended far to the south¬ 
ward from Canada, and the Spaniards claimed that Florida 
extended northward to the end of the continent, the claims 
of the two nations overlapped. Then there came a third 
people, the English, who settled on the Atlantic coast between 
the settlements of France and Spain, and claimed territory 
that was already claimed by both of these countries. 

The English. — The 
English took little in¬ 
terest in America before 
the reign of Queen Eliza¬ 
beth. The voyages of 
Cabot had been disap¬ 
pointing and, though 
fishermen occasionally 
went to the banks of 
Newfoundland, no 
serious effort was made 
in exploration. Eng¬ 
land, under the rule of 
Elizabeth, was becom¬ 
ing .a formidable rival 
of Spain. While Eng¬ 
land was steadily rising 
in power, especially 
through the strong navy 
that she was building 

up, Spain, despite her S ie Walter Raleigh and his Son 
wealthy American pos¬ 
sessions, was steadily declining in power on account of her 
oppressive government and her many costly wars. 

Englishmen were beginning to see the advantage of plant¬ 
ing colonies in America. Such colonies would make it 
easier to attack Spanish commerce in American waters, 
and would open up new markets for English trade. The 
voyages of Cabot were now seen to be important, and 




2 6 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

through them an English claim to North America was 
put forth. 

Sir Walter Raleigh. — As had been the case with the 
French, the early attempt of the English at colonizing 
America failed. Of the unsuccessful attempts, that of Sir 
Walter Raleigh is notable. Raleigh was one of the most 
accomplished men of his time. He was a great favorite of 
the queen, who gave him a charter for establishing an 
English colony in North America. Men whom Raleigh 
sent out in advance to select a site for the colony, carried 
back to England such glowing accounts of the land about 
Pamlico Sound, on the coast of North Carolina, that the 
queen named the country Virginia in honor of herself. 1 

The “Lost Colony. ,, —The first colonists that Raleigh sent 
out landed on Roanoke Island between Pamlico and Albe¬ 
marle Sounds. Incurring the hostility of the Indians and 
running low in provisions, they soon returned to England. 
Raleigh was disappointed, but sent out another party. 
These colonists included some women. Under John White 
as governor, they arrived at Roanoke Island in 1587. Soon 
after the landing a daughter was bom to Eleanor, daughter 
of Governor White and wife of Ananias Dare, one of the 
colonists. This little girl, Virginia Dare, was the first child 
of English parents born in what is now the United States. 
When she was only a few days old, her grandfather found it 
necessary to return to England to get aid for the colony. 
While he was there, war broke out between England and 
Spain. White, harassed with anxiety for the fate of his 
people, was forced to wait three years for an opportunity to 
return to Roanoke. 

On reaching the spot where the settlement had been, 
he found the fort deserted and remnants of articles used by 
the colonists strewn around in confusion. There was no 
human life, but there was one little sign of hope. It had 
been agreed that if the colonists left the island they would 

1 Elizabeth was called the “Virgin Queen" because she never 
married. 


TAKING OVER THE NEW LANDS 


27 


carve on trees or doorposts the name of the place to which 
they were going, and, if they were in distress, they should 
make a cross along with the name. Now White saw the 
word “Croatoan,” which had been distinctly carved on one 
of the posts of the 
fort. Croatoan 
was the name of a 
neighboring island 
where the Indians 
were friendly and, 
as there was no 
cross, White hoped 
that his relatives 
and friends were 
in safety on that 
island. The ship 
captain consented 
to take him to 
Croatoan Island, 
but a storm arose 
and beat the ship 
about, and the 
captain steered for 
England without 
further delay. 

Raleigh made repeated search for his unfortunate colo¬ 
nists, but they were never found. Long afterwards, Indians 
told the English settlers at Jamestown that the colonists 
lived for some years among their tribes, but that finally all 
were put to death except four men, two boys, and a young 
maid. People have never ceased to wonder whether this 
young maid was little Virginia Dare. 1 

1 In the eastern sections of North Carolina and South Carolina 
people live at this day who -seem to be a distinct class from the other 
inhabitants. It is believed by many that these people are descendants 
of the survivors of Raleigh’s colony and Indians with whom they 
intermarried. 








28 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


The London Company and the Plymouth Company.— 

Though Raleigh’s own colony failed, his great purpose 
succeeded. Raleigh more than any other man turned Eng¬ 
land’s attention to the advantage of colonizing America. 
Men of wealth and influence planned to establish colonies 
for commercial proposes. In response to their petitions, 
James I, who had succeeded Elizabeth, granted charters 
lor the colonization of Virginia to two companies, after¬ 
wards known as the London Company and the Plymouth 
Company. To the London Company he gave all North 
America from North Carolina to the Potomac River. To 
the Plymouth Company he gave the region from Long Island 
Sound to Nova Scotia. 

The land between the Potomac River and Long Island 
Sound could be settled by either, but there must be at least 
a hundred miles between the set¬ 
tlements of the two companies. 
In these charters, as in charters 
previously granted by England, 
Virginia overlapped both Florida 
and New France. It is also inter¬ 
esting to note that, though more 
than a century had passed since 
Columbus discovered America, it 
was still thought that the part of 
the continent covered by the Vir¬ 
ginia grants was only a narrow 
strip; the grants were, therefore, 
Henry Hudson made to extend from the Atlantic 



From a painting in the posses- Ocean to the South Sea (Pacific 
sion of the Corporation of the City q n 
of New York. 

It was through the efforts put 
forth by the London Company that the first permanent 
English settlement in America was made at Jamestown 
(1607). 

The Dutch. — The Dutch had built up an enormous 
trade with the East Indies. In 1609, Henry Hudson, an 





TAKING OVER THE NEW LANDS 


29 


Englishman in the service of the Dutch East India Company, 
sailed in search of a western strait that would lead to Asia. 
Hudson entered the beautiful river that bears his name, 
and at the mouth of which the great city of New York 
stands to-day. He ascended the river as far as the site of 
Albany. 

As soon as the Dutch had heard from Hudson’s party 
that valuable furs were to be found in that region, they began 
trading with the Indians along the Hudson River. Through 
explorations of the coast made by their vessels, the Dutch 
set up a claim to the country from Massachusetts to the 
Delaware River. They called the country New Netherland, 
in compliment to their native land, which is called also The 
Netherlands. 


Topics and Questions 

1. Following the discoveries that took place near the end of the 
fifteenth century, the centers of commerce shifted from the Medi¬ 
terranean Sea to the Atlantic coast of Europe. Spain, France, England 
and Holland became concerned with the colonization of America. 

2. What made so much turmoil and lawlessness in the Spanish 
settlement at Hispaniola? What discovery resulted from Ponce de 
Leon’s search for the Fountain of Youth? Why did Balboa call the 
Pacific Ocean the South Sea? Describe the conquest of Mexico and 
Peru. 

3. Whose ship first sailed, around the world? What was its route? 
How did Magellan’s work complete that of Columbus? 

4. Had an eastern ocean route to India ever been found? Why 
were efforts continued, after Magellan’s voyage, to find western routes? 
What was the net result of these efforts? 

5. Describe the expeditions of De Soto and Coronado. Sum up 
the gains and losses from these expeditions. 

6. Why was African slavery introduced into America? What class 
of men followed up the work of the Spanish explorers in the New 
World? What was their method of meeting the Indians and working 
among them? Contrast the motives and methods of the Spanish 
explorer and the Spanish monk. 

7. What was the extent of the Spanish claim to the New World? 
What was the extent of Florida on a Spanish map of the times? 

8. Describe the Reformation. Tell about “the balance of power” 
in Europe. How did corsairs injure Spanish commerce? 


30 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

9. Why had France been backward in getting a share of the New 
World? What was the attitude of Francis I toward the pope’s division 
of the world? Why do Canadians and Frenchmen honor the name of 
Jacques Cartier? What success did the Huguenots have in making 
settlements in America? Why did Canada seem desirable to the 
French government and to individual Frenchmen? When and by 
whom was Quebec founded? How far did French and Spanish claims 
to America conflict? 

10. In what way was England becoming a rival of Spain? What 
advantages would come to England from colonies in the New World? 
Who was Sir Walter Raleigh? Tell in an interesting way the story of 
Raleigh’s “Lost Colony.” Tell about the London Company and the 
Plymouth Company. 

11. Why was the Dutch nation interested in finding a western pas¬ 
sage to the East? What explorer, while searching for such a passage, 
gave the Dutch a claim to land in the New World. 


Project Exercises 

1. Find on a map every place mentioned in this chapter. 

2. Show on a map of North America how the claims of the Spaniards, 
French, English and Dutch overlapped one another. 

3. On an outline map of North America locate in colored pencils 
the grants to the London and to the Plymouth companies. 

Important Dates: 

1513. Discovery of Florida. 

1513. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean. 

1519-22. The World Circumnavigated. 

I 539 _ 4 2 - He Soto’s Expedition. 

1565. Founding of St. Augustine, the oldest city in the United 
States. 

1587. Raleigh’s “Lost Colony.” 

1608. Founding of Quebec. 

1609. Dutch sail up the Hudson River. 


CHAPTER III 


THE EARLY ENGLISH COLONIES 

The London Company. — This company had been organ¬ 
ized as a business enterprise. 1 Many persons bought shares 
of the company’s stock because it was believed that when 
a colony was well established, large profits for the company 
would be made from the precious metals found and from 
trade between the colony and the mother country. Some 
bought shares in the patriotic hope that the colony would 
benefit England. 

Ships used for crossing the Atlantic were still small and 
clumsy, and the hardship and danger which would be met 
on the voyage would not be lessened when the strange shores 
of America were reached. Yet, the company secured 
colonists by the promise of a hundred acres of land to each 
person who paid his passage across the ocean, and also a 
hundred acres to any one who paid the passage of another. 
However, the company was not to distribute the land for 
seven years, the settlers in the meantime sharing the products 
of their labor. 

Virginia the First Permanent English Colony. — Early 
in 1607 the company sent out to Virginia three vessels — the 
Susan Constant, the God-Speed, and the Discovery — having 
on board one hundred and five colonists, all men. A govern¬ 
ment had already been provided. A council, living in the 
colony, but appointed by the king, was to have charge of 
all local affairs; but any regulation which it made could 
be vetoed by a higher council in London or by the king. 
The settlers were guaranteed all the rights and liberties of 

1 The Plymouth Company, organized at the same time as the Lon¬ 
don Company, did not succeed in planting a colony. 

31 


32 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


Englishmen. The king was to receive one fifth of the gold 
or silver found. 

The fleet entered Chesapeake Bay and ascended a large 
river in search of a suitable place for a settlement. About 
fifty miles from the mouth of the river a site was selected. 
The landing was made May 13, 1607. While the colonists 
were building their fort Indians attacked them but were 
quickly driven away. The little band of Englishmen honored 
their king by calling their settlement Jamestown and the 
river the James. 

Sufferings of the Colonists. — Trouble began for the 
colonists almost immediately. Many of them were unused 
to manual labor; few, if any, knew how to plant a crop, 
the thing most needed in a new settlement. Time was 
wasted in searching for gold. The supplies ran so low that 
the men were reduced to eating provisions that had been 
spoiled by the long voyage across the ocean. They were 
surrounded by marshes, and when the hot summer came, so 

many sickened and died 
that in less than six 
months after they had 
landed, more than half 
the colonists had found 
graves on the Virginia 
shore. 

Captain John Smith. 

— It was due to the 
energy and wisdom of 
one man that the whole 
colony did not perish. 
Captain John Smith 
was a soldier and ad¬ 
venturer who had fought 
in many wars and had 
seen much of the world. His love of adventure had brought 
him to Virginia, and his fame had influenced the king to give 
him a place in the colonial council. When starvation faced 



Captain John Smith 

From the map in his Description of New England. 



THE EARLY ENGLISH COLONIES 


33 


the few remaining colonists, Smith kept them alive with com 
which he obtained by trading with the Indians. 1 Despite 
his efforts the number of colonists was reduced by death 
to thirty-eight during the first winter. The arrival of more 
immigrants meant only more mouths for Smith to feed, for 
they also spent their time searching for gold. Smith now 
determined to compel the colonists to work. 

Smith Compels the Colonists 
to Work. —The regulation of the 
company requiring that whatever 
crop a man made or whatever 
food he secured by hunting and 
fishing should go into the com¬ 
mon storehouse of the colony, 
enabled the idlers and gold 
seekers to live on what the few 
thrifty settlers obtained. Smith 
made a mle that those who 
would not work should not eat. 

The settlers knew that he would 
enforce the mle, and it was not 
long before there was a change 
for the better. By the spring of 1609 many houses had been 
built and much ground planted. Immigrants continued to 
arrive, making the total number of persons at Jamestown 
five hundred, and Smith put all newcomers immediately 
to work. Shortly afterward Smith was so severely wounded 
by an explosion of gunpowder that he had to go to England 
for surgical treatment. He did not again visit the colony 
that he had saved. 



Pocahontas 


1 Smith wrote a General History of Virginia in which he relates that 
on one occasion, when he had been seized by the Indians and con¬ 
demned to death, the pleadings of Pocahontas, the little daughter of the 
chief, Powhattan, saved his life. Pocahontas often afterward be¬ 
friended the colony. She embraced Christianity and married John 
Rolfe, one of the settlers. Through this union some of the most promi¬ 
nent families of Virginia claim descent from the Indian heroine. 


34 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

The “ Starving Time.” —After Smith’s departure the 
settlers again fell into idleness. They rapidly consumed their 
supply of food, and their appeals to the Indians for help were 
refused. The Indians planned to starve out the colony, 
and in the meantime they murdered settlers at every oppor¬ 
tunity. In the horrible winter of 1609-10, known as the 
“starving time,” cold and famine almost exterminated the 
colony. Of the five hundred settlers only sixty survived 
until summer. The survivors were about to abandon James¬ 
town and make an effort with a few small vessels to reach 
England, when a fleet arrived bearing more immigrants 
and, best of all, plenty of provisions. 

The Virginia Colony a Success. — Better times came. 
New governors enforced discipline and kept the colonists at 
work. To encourage industry each man was allowed to 
cultivate three acres of land for his own profit. Up and 
down the river new lands were cleared and immigrants 
continued to arrive from England. The planting of tobacco 
was undertaken. The date usually given for the first tobacco 
planted by the Virginia colonists is 1612. When Virginians 
found what wealth there was in tobacco, they planted more 
and more of it until finally everybody was engaged in its 
cultivation. There was tobacco everywhere, even in the 
streets and gardens of Jamestown. With tobacco the 
Virginian could buy what he wanted, and with it a commerce 
was begun between Virginia and Europe that soon made 
the colony self-sustaining and attracted a large number of 
settlers. There was no more danger of starvation, and there 
was no more hunting for gold. Efforts of the English to 
establish a permanent colony in America had at last suc¬ 
ceeded. 

Shiploads of Women. — Knowing, however, that without 
wives the colonists would never regard Virginia as home in 
the true sense of the word, the company sent over in 1619 
ninety worthy young maidens. Each woman was allowed 
her own choice in selecting a husband, though the fortunate 
man who won her had to pay in tobacco the cost of her 


THE EARLY ENGLISH COLONIES 


35 


passage to America. The plan succeeded so well that 
other women were sent over by shiploads to become wives of 
the planters on payment of their passage in tobacco. 

The First Legislature in America. —When the settlers 
complained of unjust regulations imposed upon them, 
the company allowed them an assembly of their own choos¬ 
ing. The colonists elected representatives, called burgesses. 



Jamestown in 1622 

After a cut in the Scheeps-Togl van Anthony Chester na Virginia, 1622. 


The burgesses, together with the governor and his council, 
formed the assembly. The first meeting of the assembly 
was held in Jamestown in 1619. Among its first acts was 
one forbidding the governor to lay taxes without the con¬ 
sent of the assembly. Here we find the beginning of 
resistance to unjust taxation that led to the American 
Revolution. 

Introduction of African Slavery. — In the same year that 
the first shipload of women arrived in America and the 
first assembly met, African slavery was introduced into 
Virginia. A Dutch war vessel brought twenty negroes to 
Jamestown. They were sold to settlers as slaves. To the 
men who watched the landing of this handful of negroes, it 
was doubtless an unimportant matter, yet it was the be¬ 
ginning of a system that had an immense influence upon our 
country. Little opposition to slavery had yet arisen any¬ 
where in the world. Even kings and queens made money 


36 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

out of the slave traffic. Yet slavery would probably not 
have taken such a hold upon America if it had not been for 
tobacco. When it was found that negroes made the cheapest 
laborers for cultivating the plantations, many were imported. 

Indians Become Hostile. — The Indians saw with anxious 
eyes the growing strength of the colony, and knew that if 
they did not destroy the settlements, they themselves 
would be driven from the homes of their ancestors. In 
1622 they made a sudden attack on the plantations, killing 
many men, women, and children. The Virginians sprang 
to arms and forced the Indians to retire to regions far from 
the settlements. The colony was so firmly established by 
this time that it quickly recovered from the effects of the 
Indian uprising. The inhabitants now numbered about 
twelve hundred. The plantations extended inland to the 
site of the present city of Richmond. 

Virginia a Royal Colony. — The majority of the members 
of the London Company (or the Virginia Company, as it 
was most commonly called), were opposed to King James in 
politics. They sided with parliament in a contest which 
sought to prevent the king from assuming tQO much power. 
The king feared the influence of the company and annulled 
its charter in 1624. By this act the company, which had 
been very liberal in its treatment of Virginia, lost control of 
the colony. Thereafter the governor and the council were 
to be appointed by the king, though the Virginians were still 
allowed their assembly. A colony under the direct control 
of the king is known as a royal, or crown, colony. 

Conditions in England. — The contest between king and 
parliament sprang from conditions that existed long before 
James I began to reign. The Tudor sovereigns — those from 
Henry VII to Elizabeth — ruled England practically as 
absolute monarchs, but they did so tactfully. By con¬ 
trolling parliament, so that it would pass such laws as the 
sovereign wished, they made it appear that the people were 
governing through parliament. But James I had no tact; 
besides, he came to the throne with an exalted idea of king- 


THE EARLY ENGLISH COLONIES 


37 


ship. He believed in the divine right of the king — a 
theory, commonly accepted in the autocratic monarchies 
of France and Spain. According to this theory the king 
derived all power from God; parliament and the people had 
no rights except such as the king chose to give. The English 
people thought otherwise. They remembered the guarantees 
of lib^ty that they had inherited as Englishmen and de¬ 
manded that they be given through parliament their share 
in the government. When James, with his dictatorial man¬ 
ner, showed his intention of governing as he pleased, parlia¬ 
ment, once more an influential body, was ready to thwart 
him. • 

“Nonconformists” and “Separatists.” — As was usually 
the case, religion was mixed with politics. Early in the 
reign of Queen Elizabeth many Protestants had become 
dissatisfied with the services of the Church of England, 
the Protestant church that received support from public 
taxes. These dissenters, called Puritans, were divided into 
two classes, the “ Nonconformists,” who refused to con¬ 
form to the laws and ceremonies of the Church of England 
but retained their membership in the church with the 
hope of bringing about the changes they desired; and the 
“Separatists,” who had withdrawn from the church. Since 
the king was head of the church, James regarded the attitude 
of the Puritans as a blow at his authority. The time for 
putting persons to death on account of their religious con¬ 
victions had passed, but during James’s reign Puritans were 
persecuted by fine and imprisonment and by mutilation, 
such as cutting off the ears or slitting the nose. 

The First Exiles for Conscience , Sake. — James was 
particularly severe in his persecution of the “Separatists.” 
Some of their congregations emigrated to Holland, where 
there was more religious freedom. In 1609 one of the 
congregations settled at Leyden. There these Englishmen, 
Pilgrims as they called themselves, lived for ten years; 
but they gained only a scant livelihood in overcrowded 
Holland, and, besides, they feared that their children would 


38 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

intermarry with the Dutch and forget their native land and 
mother tongue. They wished to go where they might live 
as Englishmen, and still be free from persecution. They 
decided on America, where the Virginia colony had shown 
that settlements could maintain themselves. 

The Pilgrims at Plymouth. — The Pilgrims obtained from 
the London (Virginia) Company a grant of land in America. 

As they were too 
poor to establish 
themselves in the 
New World, they 
borrowed money 
from London mer¬ 
chants under promise 
to return it from the 
profits of the colony. 
Those who were se¬ 
lected to make the 
venture, crossed from 
Holland to England, 
whence they were to 
take passage for 
America. About one 
hundred men, 
women, and children crowded into the little ship Mayflower , 
and after a voyage of two months reached the coast of 
Massachusetts. It had been the intention of the Pilgrims 
to land at some point within the territory of Virginia, but 
a storm drove their ship to the north. A landing was 
made on December 21, 1620, at a place already called 
Plymouth, and here a settlement was begun. 

The “Mayflower” Compact. — Before the Pilgrims went 
on shore the men gathered in the cabin of the Mayflower 
and signed a compact, forming for themselves a government, 
and binding themselves to obey such laws as should be 
enacted. Thus Plymouth colony began with the people’s 
governing themselves. 



The “Mayflower’' 

From the model in the Smithsonian Institution 
at Washington. 







THE EARLY ENGLISH COLONIES 


39 


Hardships of the Pilgrims. — The settlers had arrived 
too late to make suitable preparation for their first northern 
winter. Their food ran short. Before the winter was over, 
more than half the colonists had died from exposure or 
hunger. But the Pilgrims were a brave people, and when 
the Mayflower returned to England in the spring, not one 
of the survivors went with her. 

Fortunately the Indians were friendly, for if they had 
attacked the feeble colony, nothing could have saved it. 



Copyright, 1891, by A. S. Burbank 

A View of Plymouth in 1622 


Almost every year brought other Pilgrims to Plymouth, 
but they came in such small numbers that the growth of the 
colony was slow. 

The life of the Pilgrims was one of extreme hardship. 
The winters were severe and the soil was sterile. Nothing, 
however, daunted these men who had exiled themselves for 
the sake of conscience. Fisheries were established on the 
coast, and trading posts with the Indians. By dint of in¬ 
dustry and saving, they paid within seven years the debt 
due the London merchants for bringing over the first 
settlers. 

Slow Growth of Plymouth. — In thirteen years only three 
thousand persons had migrated to Plymouth colony. Eight 





40 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

towns had been built. The government was in the hands 
of a governor and his council, called assistants, and dele¬ 
gates, all sitting as a general court (assembly). Every 
freeman was allowed to vote, and each town sent two dele¬ 
gates to the general court. For nearly three quarters of a 
century Plymouth existed without a charter from the crown; 
then by order of the king (1691) it was annexed to the 
colony of Massachusetts Bay, which had been planted 
close by. 

Puritans Come to Massachusetts. — The settlers of Mas¬ 
sachusetts Bay were also Puritans. Unlike the Pilgrims, 
however, these Puritans were “ Nonconformists.” More¬ 
over, many of them were men of wealth and prominence. 

When they saw that the 
course of Charles I, son 
of James I, toward all 
Puritans was more 
severe than his father’** 
had been, they realized 
that the time might 
come when they would 
need a place of refuge. 
A body of “Noncon¬ 
formists ’ ’ obtained from 
the Council of New Eng¬ 
land, a company own¬ 
ing the territory, per¬ 
mission to settle in 
Massachusetts. In 
1628 John Endicott led 
over a small band of 
colonists and settled 
them at a place on 
Massachusetts Bay which he named Salem. 

The men in England who had promoted the colony, 
thinking it prudent to secure the approval of the king, 
obtained from him a charter under the name of “The Gov- 



Puritan Costumes 




THE EARLY ENGLISH COLONIES 


41 


emor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New 
England.” As the king’s course grew more tyrannical, the 
officers and members of the Massachusetts Bay Company 
themselves took ship for America. They brought then- 
charter with them. John Winthrop, a man of wealth and 
education and one of the greatest characters of colonial 
history, took the place of Endicott as governor. 

The immigrants built other towns, among them Boston, 
which soon became the seat of government. At this time 
the Puritans began leaving England for Massachusetts in 
great numbers. Twelve years after Salem was settled there 
were twenty thousand persons, mostly Puritans, living in 
the colony. 

The New England Town Meeting. — The towns of 
Massachusetts had local self-government from the first. 
The voters, assembled in town meeting, levied taxes for the 
town and chose officials to manage its affairs. The govern¬ 
ment of the colony was similar to that of Plymouth. The 
governor, assistants, and delegates from the towns consti¬ 
tuted the general court (assembly). 

The Church Controls. — But in the matters of religion and 
of voting Massachusetts was not as liberal as Plymouth. 
Although the Puritans who planted Massachusetts were not 
“Separatists” while in England, yet very soon after landing 
in America they organized a church independent of the 
Church of England. They made Massachusetts a religious 
commonwealth — that is, the church controlled the govern¬ 
ment. Only church members were allowed to vote or to 
hold office, and the ministers decided who should be church 
members. As a majority of the people were not admitted 
to church membership, the government was placed in the 
hands of a few men who were largely influenced by the 
ministers. Everybody was taxed to support the Puritan 
(Congregational) Church, and no other form of worship 
was permitted. The Puritans had fled from England to 
escape persecution; yet men and women who objected to 
the Puritan idea of religion or government were whipped 


42 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


or banished from the colony. The Puritans feared that if 
other religious sects were allowed among them, they might 
lose control of the colony that they had established so that 
they might worship God in their own way. It should be 
remembered, too, that at that time there was little religious 
toleration in the world. 

Other Exiles; the Catholics in Maryland. — In Eng¬ 
land the Catholics were treated even worse than the Puri¬ 
tans. They were forbidden to engage in their worship; 
they were fined for not attending the services of the Estab¬ 
lished Church; they were deprived of the vote and were 
denied many rights of property; and their priests were not 
allowed to reside in the kingdom. 

George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, a Catholic 
nobleman of England, conceived the idea of planting a 
colony in America, where all Christians might live without 
being persecuted for their religious belief. King Charles I, 

who was his friend, gave 
him a grant to territory 
north of Virginia. The 
king named the new prov¬ 
ince Maryland, in compli¬ 
ment to his queen, 
Henrietta Maria. A char¬ 
ter confirming the grant 
was prepared, but before 
it was issued George 
Calvert died and the char¬ 
ter was issued to his son, 
Cecilius Calvert, the second 
Lord Baltimore. 

The charter made Balti¬ 
more absolute lord and 
proprietor of the colony, 
except that he and its inhabitants had to acknowledge 
allegiance to the king. As a token of this allegiance two 
Indian arrow heads were to be sent to the king every year. 



Cecilius Calvert, Lord Baltimore 

After a portrait in the British Public 
Record Office 



THE EARLY ENGLISH COLONIES 


43 


The king could not lay taxes upon the colony, nor could he 
veto its laws or interfere in any way with its government. 
Calvert was practically king of Maryland, and his rights 
descended to his heirs. The colonists, also, were protected 
by a provision in the charter allowing them or their repre¬ 
sentatives Jo vote upon all laws. A colony owned by one 
man or a set of men is called a proprietary colony. 

Maryland Prosperous from the First. — While the pur¬ 
pose of Baltimore was primarily to afford a refuge for his 
persecuted brethren, all Christians were allowed in the 
colony. Having offered reasonable terms upon which 
settlers might secure land, Baltimore sent over a party of 
colonists, Catholics and Protestants, under the charge of his 
brother, Leon¬ 
ard Calvert. 

In 1634 the 
settlers sailed 
up the Po¬ 
tomac River. 

They easily 
made friends 
with the In¬ 
dians. With 
hatchets and 
tools and rolls 
of bright cloth, 
they bought an 

Indian village situated on a bluff overlooking the St. Marys 
River. The natives agreed to move away as soon as their 
crops were harvested, and in the meantime the two races 
lived together in the village in perfect harmony. The war¬ 
riors took their white friends with them on their hunts and 
the squaws taught the English women to make bread from 
com. In Maryland there was no starving time. On lands 
that the Indians had already cleared, the colonists began 
immediately to plant, and in a few months the village of 
St. Marys was surrounded by prosperous farms. 









44 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Opposition of Virginia. — The Virginians objected to the 
establishment of Baltimore’s colony. They claimed Mary¬ 
land as a part of their territory, and they did not wish a 
Catholic colony so near them. A number of small battles 
were fought between Virginians and Marylanders. Many 
years had to pass before Virginia was content to leave Mary¬ 
land alone. 

The “ Toleration Act.” — Since the granting of religious 
freedom in Maryland was at first only a custom, Lord Bal¬ 
timore wished to make it a law of the colony. Therefore, 
in 1649, the assembly passed an act declaring it unlawful 
to molest any Christian on account of his religion. The 
law, passed at a time when it was common for one sect to 
persecute another, has become famous as the “Toleration 
Act.” As a result of the act a large number of Puritans, 
suffering oppression in Virginia (see page 60), moved that 
very year into Maryland. 


Topics and Questions 

1. How was the London Company formed, and how were settlers 
secured? Give the details of the founding of Jamestown and of the 
early sufferings of the colonists. Describe and estimate the impor¬ 
tance of John Smith’s work for the Jamestown colony. Tell the story 
of Pocahontas. Would you have enjoyed working for the common 
storehouse? What were the advantages and disadvantages of such 
a system? 

2. Why did better times come to Virginia? Why were homes more 
permanent and happy in Jamestown after 1619? Why was a legislature 
given to the Virginia colony? Why were the Jamestown settlers ready 
to buy the negro slaves? 

3. Account for the Indian massacre in 1622. Tell why Virginia 
was made a royal colony. 

4. Tell about James I and his belief in the divine right of kings. 
Define Puritan, Nonconformist, Separatist, and Pilgrim. Why did 
the Pilgrims leave England? Holland? Why did they come to 
America? From whom did the Pilgrims procure a grant of land, and 
from whom the money necessary for making a settlement? Tell all 
you can of the voyage of the Mayflower. What was the object of the 
4 4 Mayflower Compact ’ ’ ? 


1'HE EARLY ENGLISH COLONIES 45 

5. Compare the hard times in Jamestown’s early history with those 
at Plymouth. Describe the growth of Plymouth. 

6. To whom did the Council of New England make a grant of land? 
What town did John Endicott’s colonists settle on this grant? What 
was the Massachusetts Bay Company? Why did they ask the king 
for a charter and why did they come to America? Tell about the 
settlement of Boston and the great Puritan migration. 

7. Describe the New England town meeting. Describe the govern¬ 
ment of the Massachusetts colony. Name some of the laws and 
penalties in Massachusetts. Why did the Massachusetts Bay Com¬ 
pany make the union of church and state so close? 

8. What was the motive of Lord Baltimore in founding the colony 
of Maryland? Why was Maryland called a proprietary colony? 
Contrast the early years of Maryland with those of Virginia and Ply¬ 
mouth. Why did Virginia object to Baltimore’s colony? What was 
the meaning and effect of the Toleration Act? 


Project Exercises 

1. Review the bounds of the grant of territory to the London 
Company of England (see page 28). 

2. Explain why the granting of a legislature to the Virginia colony 
was a matter of such great importance. 

3. Compare the seventeenth century attitude of the mother country 
and the Massachusetts colony on religious questions. 

Important Dates : 

1607. Settlement of Jamestown. 

1619. Meeting at Jamestown of the first legislature in America. 

1620. Landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth. 

1634. Founding of Maryland. 



A Maryland Shilling 






CHAPTER IV 

ENGLAND’S RIVALS IN AMERICA 

Spanish America. — Spain, claiming all the New World 
through discovery and exploration and by gift of the pope, 
of course did not recognize the right of other nations to 
make settlements in America. Having driven the French 
out of Florida (see page 24), the Spaniards remained in 
possession of the peninsula, with St. Augustine as their chief 
post, and even extended their posts as far north as Port 
Royal in South Carolina. In New Mexico, in the far West, 
Spaniards coming up from the city of Mexico founded Santa 
F 6 in 1605. At various points Spanish priests established 
schools and missions for the education and conversion of the 
Indians. The Spanish settlements in what is now the 
United States were weak, for most of the Spaniards were 
attracted to Mexico, Central America, and Peru, where 
the mines poured out a wealth of gold and silver. 

The Buccaneers. — Later the English, French, and Dutch 
made settlements of their own in the West Indies. Spain 
had settled only the few large islands. The other nations 
settled upon the many small islands, which were unoccupied 
except by the natives. The English and the French made 
their first settlements in 1625 and the Dutch a few years 
later. After these nations had settled in the West Indies, 
buccaneers took the place of the corsairs, who had previously 
been such a plague to Spain (see page 22). Buccaneers 
made their nests on the small islands, whence they continued 
the damaging of Spanish trade by smuggling, plundering, 
and killing. The buccaneers differed from corsairs in that 
they had no home and they held but slight allegiance to any 
country. They acted, as often as not, without authority 

46 


ENGLAND’S RIVALS IN AMERICA 


47 


from any government, and their motive was personal gain. 
Their ranks were recruited from the most desperate and 
lawless class of men. Except for the fact that they were 



the enemies of Spaniards alone, and not of all mankind, 
they were pirates. 1 

By 1700, when buccaneering was finally suppressed, 
mainly through the efforts of England, the trade of Spain 
with her American colonies had been brought well-nigh to 
ruin — a condition that had much to do with the weaken 
ing of Spain as a war power. 

Importance of the West Indies. — While Spanish trade 
languished, the West Indies prospered. The supply of 
precious metals on the islands was never large and was 
soon exhausted; but the rich soil made planting profitable. 
Sugar became the largest crop, though coffee, cotton, and 

1 As corsairing was followed in the West Indies by buccaneering, 
so buccaneering was followed by piracy. After 1700 the West Indies 
became infested with pirates who for many years scoured the neighbor¬ 
ing seas and even carried their depredations far up the Atlantic. The 
pirates were very active off the coast of the young English colonies of 
the Carolinas. 






48 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


tobacco were also extensively cultivated. In the struggle 
of nations for control of America, the West Indies became 
the scene of much fighting. 

New France. — Samuel de Champlain, governor of New 
France, was for more than a quarter of a century the leading 
man of Canada. After he had founded Quebec (see page 
24) he began to explore. He made friends with the Indians 
around Quebec and joined them in a war against the Iroquois 
of upper New York. This branch of the great Iroquois 



French Missionaries to the Indians 
F rom an old print. 


family, called by the whites the “Five Nations,” because 
it was a confederacy of five tribes, 1 was the most powerful 
Indian organization east of the Mississippi. Champlain’s 
mistake in arousing the hostility of the “Five Nations’' 
was fortunate for the English; it prevented the French from 
occupying territory in New York at a time when the Dutch 
on the Hudson were too weak to offer opposition (see page 
28). Unable to go southward, Champlain pushed his ex¬ 
plorations to the west. He explored the country far into 
the interior and was the first white man to look upon the 
waters of the great lakes of Ontario and Huron. 

1 After the Tuscarora tribe from North Carolina joined the con¬ 
federacy (see note, page 70), it was called the “Six Nations." 








ENGLAND’S RIVALS IN AMERICA 


49 


Catholic Missionaries. — Champlain regarded the con¬ 
version of souls as more important than the making of an 
empire. He first secured the assistance of fathers of the 
Recollect Order, who built missions among the Indians of 
Canada. Jesuit missionaries, who followed the Recollects, 
were more active, and it was mainly through their zeal that 
the country now known as the Middle West was explored. 
These devoted men endured untold hardships in carrying 
Christian teaching to the savage. Some 
suffered torture and death; yet they 
persevered until they had converted 
many of the Indians to Christianity. 

By 1634 their missions extended as far 
as the neighborhood of Lake Huron. 

By 1641 they had reached the present 
state of Michigan. 

The French Traders. — But the mis¬ 
sionaries were not alone in exploring 
the West. The St. Lawrence River, 
upon which Quebec and the other towns 
were located, furnished an excellent 
waterway to the region around the Great 
Lakes, and the Frenchmen were not slow 
to take advantage of it. Into the depths 
of the forest French traders carried 
beads, trinkets, and cloth to exchange with the Indians for 
skins and furs. They outdistanced the priest. A few 
years after missions were planted in Michigan, the traders 
had reached the Illinois country. Unlike the priests, they 
dared danger mainly for the sake of trade, but, like them, 
they won the friendship of the Indians for the French. 

Slow Growth of New France. — Though priests and 
traders were active, the settlement of Canada was exceed¬ 
ingly slow and in marked contrast to the growth of the 
English colonies. Thirty-two years after its founding 
(1640), Quebec, the principal town of the province, con¬ 
sisted of a fort, a Jesuit chapel, a convent, a seminary and 



French Fur Trader 


50 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

a hospital for the Indians, and the warehouses and tene¬ 
ments of a French fur company — all rudely constructed 
of wood. Of dwellings for settlers there were barely any, 
since there was little need for them. The population 
numbered only about two hundred men, women, and chil¬ 
dren, almost all of whom were connected with the fur com¬ 
pany. The remainder were mostly priests and nuns. The 
wilderness around Quebec was scarcely touched, for the dozen 
or so settlers could not gain a living from the unproductive 
-soil. Nor could the settlers trade with the Indians, for the 
fur company had the sole right; nor were they permitted 

to catch the fish that 
abounded in waters 
near by. Often their 
condition was so des¬ 
perate that they had 
to be fed from the 
supplies sent over 
from France for the 
benefit of the em¬ 
ployees of the fur 
company. A colony 
planted in such a 
manner does not 
attract many im¬ 
migrants. 

New Netherland. 
— The Dutch, who 
claimed the country 
from Massachusetts 
to the Delaware 
River, calling it New 
Netherland (see page 29), had built, in 1613, a post 
on Manhattan Island, the site of New York city, for the 
pu pose of trading in furs and skins with the Indians on the 
Hudson. Realizing the importance of the Indian trade com¬ 
ing from the north by way of Lake Champlain and from 









ENGLAND’S RIVALS IN AMERICA 


51 


the Great Lakes by way of the Mohawk River, they built 
within a few years another post on the upper Hudson, on 
the site of Albany. 

The First Dutch Settlers. — In order to reap the great 
profits of the trade with the Indians, Dutch merchants 
organized the West India Company, and obtained from the 
government of Holland the right to trade with New Nether- 
land and the right to govern the country. In 1623 the 
company sent out the first settlers. A fort was built up the 
Hudson on the site of Albany; another fort was built on 
the Delaware River, opposite Philadelphia, and still another 
on the Connecticut River, at Hartford. With this line of 
forts the Dutch hoped to hold the territory against the 
claims of other nations. 

Manhattan Purchased. — In 1626 Manhattan Island was 
purchased from the Indians for $24. Fort Amsterdam was 
erected on the island, and to the group 
of huts already there the name of New 
Amsterdam was given, in compliment 
to the chief city of Holland. 

The “ Patroons.” — As was the case 
with the Spanish and French colonies, 
the growth of New Netherland was 
very slow. In 1628, fifteen years after 
the erection of the first hut in New 
Amsterdam, only 270 people were 
living in the town. Traders mostly 
sought the colony and, since they were 
men coming and going all the time, 
the West India Company wanted 
farmers. In order to get them, it 
made a rule that every member of 
the company who took to the colony 
fifty settlers should receive the title of 

“ Patroon ” and a grant of a large tract of land. The colonists 
whom the patroon brought over had to rent land from him for 
ten years. The patroon furnished the necessary houses, 



Dutch Patroon or 
Landed Proprietor 


52 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

implements, and cattle, and the tenant could not give up 
cultivating the patroon’s land without the latter’s consent 
and could not sell his produce to any one else until the 
patroon had bought as much of it as he wished. The 
plan did not work as well as the company had hoped. It 
was difficult to persuade farmers to give up their life of in¬ 
dependence in Holland to become vassals in America. 1 Be¬ 
sides, the granting of such large tracts of land to a few 
proprietors caused much discontent among the other settlers. 
The company, therefore, abandoned the practice of creating 
patroons, and offered to every person who would become a 
settler the right to own land. With this change there was 
some improvement in immigration, yet New Netherland 
grew very slowly. 

The Dutch and the English. — The Dutch tried to hold 
the Connecticut Valley as a region for their traders to visit, 
but New England farmers, who had occupied the valley by 
building homes, crowded them out. New Englanders also 
settled on Long Island, which was then under Dutch control. 
The sturdy Puritans on Long Island did not like the rule of 
the Dutch governor at New Amsterdam and were con¬ 
stantly quarreling with him. The Dutch themselves were 
dissatisfied, because the people were given no voice whatever 
in the government that the West India Company had pro¬ 
vided for the colony. 

Peter Stuyvesant. — The most famous of the Dutch 
governors was Peter Stuyvesant, who came over in 1647. 
He was a bluff, but honest old soldier, who did not believe 
that the people were wise enough to govern themselves and 
who ruled accordingly. Yet Stuyvesant had the welfare 
of New Netherland at heart. Immigrants from Sweden 
had made a settlement, called New Sweden, in the present 
state of Delaware, in 1638. The Swedish colony was on 
territory claimed by the Dutch. Stuyvesant overpowered 

1 Holland, after gaining her independence from Spain, had set up 
a republic. The Dutch were enjoying the freest government then in 
the world. 


ENGLAND’S RIVALS IN AMERICA 


53 


New Sweden and placed it under the government of New 
Netherland. In his contentions with the New Englanders, 
however, he was not so fortu¬ 
nate. Though he stormed at 
and threatened the English 
settlers in the Connecticut Val¬ 
ley, he knew that he was not 
strong enough to make them 
acknowledge the Dutch claim 
to that region. 

The Mississippi Valley. — 

Far in the interior, back of 
the European colonies, lay the 
Mississippi Valley, the heart 
of the continent. Little was 
yet known of that vast region, 
and its importance was not 
realized. In the course of time, 
however, it was seen that the 
nation that controlled the 
Mississippi Valley would dominate North America. The 
way to the valley from any of the European settlements 
was long and tedious and beset with hardships, but for the 
French, Dutch, and Spaniards it was less so than for the 
English. The French, who had the easiest route of all, 
might reach the valley by the St. Lawrence and the Ohio 
or the Great Lakes. The Dutch might reach it by the 
Hudson and the Mohawk. The Spaniards might move 
overland from Florida or Mexico or go up the Mississippi 
from the Gulf of Mexico. The Alleghany Mountains sepa¬ 
rated the English from the valley. The approach over this 
barrier was difficult; it lay either by the upper Potomac 
where it breaks through the mountains or in the pass known 
as the Cumberland Gap. 

Why the English Excelled as Colonizers. — On the other 
hand, the temperate climate of the region which the English 
shared with the Dutch was best for colonization. Further- 



Peter Stuyvesant 

After the portrait in the posses¬ 
sion of the New York Historical 
Society 


54 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


more, the English had an advantage over all competitors. 
Others had come, for the main part, fortune hunting; the 
Spaniards to find it in the mines of gold and silver, and the 
French and Dutch in the trade for skins and furs. The 
English had come to America to make homes; and upon 
homes alone can colonies be solidly built. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Where did the Spaniards make settlements in what is now the 
United States, and why were these settlements weak? Explain the 
difference between a corsair, a buccaneer, and a pirate. Why were 
the West Indies important? 

2. What had the French done to explore and settle American lands 
before 1608? (See pages 23-25.) How did Champlain gain Indian 
allies? What Indian enemies did he make? What constitutes Cham¬ 
plain’s claim to being a great explorer? 

3. Give an account of the motives and methods of the Jesuit mis¬ 
sionaries who came to New France. Compare their work with that 
of the Spanish monks in Florida. How far westward did their missions 
extend in 1641? What were the motives and methods of the French 
fur traders? Give reasons for the slow growth of New France. 

4. Whose explorations secured a claim to the New World for the 
Dutch? (See page 28.) When was a Dutch post built on Manhattan 
Island? What was the object of the Dutch West India Company? 
When was Manhattan Island purchased? Why did the West India 
Company desire farmers as well as traders for their colony, and what 
inducements did they offer? Why did New Netherland grow so 
slowly? Why were the New Englanders able to push the Dutch out of 
the Connecticut Valley? What were the troubles of Peter Stuyvesant? 

5. Explain the importance of the Mississippi Valley. Why did the 
English excel as colonizers? 

Project Exercises 

1. Follow on the map the journeys of Champlain and the westward 
advance of the Jesuit missionaries and French fur traders. 

2. Study the map of the regions in the New World claimed by the 
Dutch, to see whether any strategic points were left uncovered by their 
forts. 

3. Trace on the map the routes that the colonizing nations could 
take to reach the Mississippi Valley. 

Importani Date: 

1613. Building of a Dutch post on the site of New York City. 


CHAPTER V 


GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES 

New Hampshire. — Settlements were first made in New 
Hampshire in 1623 by immigrants from England. Later 
other settlements were made by people from Massachusetts. 
Twice during the colonial period New Hampshire was 
attached to Massachusetts and twice it was set up as a 
separate colony. At the time of the Revolution it was a 
royal colony. 1 

Connecticut. — The settlement of Connecticut and the 
crowding out of the Dutch from the Connecticut Valley 
(see page 52) were mainly the work of immigrants from 
Massachusetts. Many persons in the Bay colony coveted 
the fertile lands of the Connecticut Valley; and, besides, 
they had become dissatisfied with the government of Massa¬ 
chusetts. In 1635, men from Massachusetts founded the 
towns of Windsor and Wethersfield. In the next year the 
migration began in earnest. The inhabitants of New Town 
(now Cambridge) sold their houses and lands and turned 
their faces toward Connecticut. They were led by their 
pastor, Thomas Hooker, and numbered about one hundred 
persons, men, women, and children. After ten days of 
travel through the forests, they reached their journey’s 
end and began the town of Hartford. In 1639, the three 
towns, Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford, adopted a 
constitution. Connecticut was the only colony whose 

1 Vermont and Maine were settled in colonial times, but they did 
not become separate colonies. Vermont, claimed by both New Hamp¬ 
shire and New York, was admitted into the Union as a state in 1791. 
Maine continued to be a part of Massachusetts until 1820, when it was 
made a state. 


55 


56 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

people framed a constitution. The king’s permission was 
not even asked, and the citizens swore allegiance, not to the 
king, but to the colony, as though it were an independent 
republic. Like Plymouth, but unlike Massachusetts, the 
right to vote was not confined to members of the Puritan 
Church. In its very infancy the colony was able to exter¬ 
minate the Pequots, the most powerful of all the tribes of 
New England,who had gone on the war-path to drive away 
the whites. 

Rhode Island. — Roger Williams founded Rhode Island. 
Williams was the minister at Salem, Massachusetts, where 
the boldness of his speech got him 
into trouble. Whatever Williams 
did not like about the Puritan 
Church or government he did not 
hesitate to denounce. He went 
even further. He declared that 
the king had no right to make 
grants of land in America; that 
these lands belonged to the Indians 
and should be purchased from 
them. Thus he not only ques¬ 
tioned the titles to the lands 
which the settlers had acquired, 
but he also denied the authority 
of the king. The doctrines of 
Williams, both religious and polit¬ 
ical, were regarded as dangerous 
to the colony. He was therefore 
banished from Massachusetts. 
It was ordered that he be sent 
to England, but he escaped into 
the wilderness where he found friends among the Indians, 
for he had often shown them kindness. The Indians gave 
him a tract of land upon which he began, in 1636, a settle¬ 
ment with a few followers who shared his opinions. He 
called his settlement Providence. 



The Monument to Roger 
Williams at Providence 



GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES 


57 

Religious Freedom in Rhode Island. — Williams was far 
in advance of his time. He believed that every man should 
be allowed to vote and to follow the religion that he pre¬ 
ferred. He wished to make a home for all who suffered on 
account of their religious belief, or, as he expressed it, all 
who were “distressed for conscience.’* Therefore, when 
persecuted persons sought him he gave them land. Under 
Williams’ instruction the settlers at Providence organized 
a very simple government. All signed a compact to obey 
laws passed by the majority, but “only in civil things.” 
No church was to be supported by taxes, and every man, 
whether Christian, Jew, Mohammedan, or heathen, could 
worship as he chose. Nowhere else in the world were all 
men allowed equal religious rights. 

The Puritans Distrust Rhode Island. — The Puritans of 
New England looked with abhorrence upon a colony that 
refused to shut its doors upon any man. They did not 
believe that Rhode Island could survive. Yet the broad 
principle upon which it was builded is the foundation stone 
of our great republic. 

The New England Confederation. — New England fur¬ 
nished the first union of colonies in America. The French, 
who had made settlements on the St. Lawrence River, were 
pushing close upon the territory claimed by New England; 
the Dutch of New Netherland were threatening the Con¬ 
necticut Valley; and the Indians were once more becoming 
restless. As a protection against these dangers the colonies 
of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven 1 
established in 1643 a confederation under the name of the 
“United Colonies of New England.” Commissioners from 
the colony took charge of certain matters of general concern, 
but each colony continued to manage its local affairs. Rhode 
Island was not admitted into the confederation because it 
harbored people of every religion. The people of New 

1 The New Haven colony had been established near the Connecticut 
colony by Puritans from old England. Later the king annexed New 
Haven colony to Connecticut. 


58 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

England had organized the confederation without per¬ 
mission from the home government, and their action was 
regarded in England with suspicion, but Charles I was too 
busy with a war with his subjects at home to take steps to 
curb the spirit of independence showing in his subjects in 
far-away America. 

The Rule of Oliver Cromwell. — The civil war in England 
broke out because Charles I, finding that he could not 
control parliament, insisted on ruling without it. He levied 
taxes without the consent of parliament, and when that body 
protested, he attempted to arrest its leaders. Parliament, 
which was Puritan, raised armies to oppose him. The 
war ended with the defeat of the king’s forces. The king 
was taken prisoner and beheaded in 1649. England was 
then organized into a republic, or commonwealth. Oliver 
Cromwell, the greatest general of the Puritans and one of 
the greatest generals of the world, was placed at its head 
under the title of Protector. 

Puritans Seize the Maryland Government. — The trans¬ 
fer of the colonies in America from the rule of the monarchy 
tc that of the Commonwealth caused no disturbance except 
in Maryland. The Puritans, who had taken advantage of 
the religious toleration in Maryland and had moved into the 
colony in large numbers, hoped that because Cromwell was 
a Puritan, the government of the colony would be taken from 
Lord Baltimore and turned over to them. With the assist¬ 
ance of Cromwell’s commissioners in America, they secured 
control of the government, and passed a law forbidding 
Catholics to practice their religious rites. In the effort of 
Lord Baltimore to regain his government his forces were 
defeated in battle. Cromwell, however, did not recognize 
the Puritan government. When Baltimore once more came 
into undisputed control of the colony, religious freedom was 
again given to all Christians. 

Coming of the Cavaliers. —While the Puritans were in 
control of England, there was no great incentive for their 
seeking homes in America, and consequently Puritan immi- 


GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES 


59 


gration to New England declined. On the other hand, 
because the Virginians had sympathized with the royal 
cause, many of the followers of the 
late king, called Cavaliers, who were 
unwilling to live in England under 
the Puritan government, immigrated 
to Virginia. The Cavaliers were 
men of character and culture, and 
they added much strength to the 
colony. 

The Restoration. — Although 
Cromwell, by a vigorous foreign 
policy, enlarged England’s commerce 
and increased the respect of other 
nations for her growing power, yet 
his rule in England did not have a 
happy result. Cromwell preferred 
to govern with every respect for the 
law, but dissensions in his own 
party and the hostility of his 
opponents made it necessary to use 
force. He was a king except in name and, supported by 
the army, he became a military despot. The people resented 
his martial rule; they chafed under the austere, pleasureless 
life that the Puritans forced upon them; most of them at 
heart had always preferred a limited monarchy. It is not 
surprising, therefore, that soon after the death of Cromwell, 
whose iron will alone had held his government together, the 
Commonwealth went to pieces. In 1660 Prince Charles, 
son of Charles I, was recalled from exile and proclaimed 
king as Charles II. 

The Work of the Puritans. — It should not be forgotten, 
however, that the Puritan Revolution in England served 
a great purpose. No more would absolute monarchy be 
tolerated in England. The insistence of the Puritans upon 
a high standard of morals struck root; and the world has 
been made better. 



An English Cavalier 
of the 17TH Century 





60 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Life in the Colonies (1660). — In Virginia everybody 
was taxed to support the Church of England, but the law 
requiring divine worship to conform to the practice of the 
church was rarely enforced. When the civil war broke out 
in England, the Virginians, believing that the Puritans were 
responsible for all the trouble, enacted severe laws against 
Nonconformists. The spirit of intolerance soon ceased, 



College of William and Mary 
After a drawing made about 1740 


however, against all except Quakers and Baptists. For 
many years longer unjust laws against these sects stood on 
the statute book, but in time they came to be ignored and 
were finally repealed. 

Eaucation m Virginia. — There were private schools and 
some public schools in Virginia. The first public school in 
America was established at Charles City, Virginia, in 1621. 
Efforts were early made to start a college, but the Indian 
war of 1622 prevented, and when Virginia became a royal 
colony the kings discouraged education. 1 

The Virginia Plantations. — On the Virginia plantations 
could be seen spacious homes, surrounded by broad acres of 
tobacco, wheat, barley, and com. There were no large 
towns, because the people did not need them. Commerce 

1 In 1693, William and Mary being on the throne, a college was 
founded at Williamsburg, Virginia, and named in their honor. The 
college of William and Mary is the second oldest college in the United 
States. 


GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES 6l 

was brought to the planter’s door. On his plantation he had 
a wharf at which ships coming from English or foreign ports 
unloaded their merchandise and took his tobacco on board. 
In earlier days the streams were the main highways. The 
Virginian and his family went to church and visited friends 
in his sloop or barge. When roads were opened, it became 
not uncommon to see fine carriages and high-bred horses. 
The Virginian entertained hospitably, and his outdoor life 
made him fond of outdoor sports, particularly horse racing. 
The meetings of the courts furnished gala occasions for all 
the country round about. 

In Maryland. — Life in Maryland was similar to that in 
Virginia. Tobacco was the chief product. The planter had 
his own wharf for receiving merchandise and shipping to¬ 
bacco. Religious freedom attracted, besides Puritans, many 
Quakers, and toleration of foreigners caused many Frenchmen 
and Dutchmen to seek peaceful homes on the north bank of 
the Potomac and the upper shores of the Chesapeake Bay. 

Somber Life of New England. — In New England there 
were few pastimes, for gayety was looked upon as sinful. 
Except in Rhode Island, every person was required to attend 
church twice on Sunday, and the law was usually rigidly 
enforced. While it was an age when every country had 
laws regulating many things with which the law does not 
now concern itself, such laws were particularly numerous 
in Massachusetts. In that colony laws regulated what 
prices a grocer should charge; what wages a servant should 
receive; how one should conduct oneself in the home, and 
what one ^should eat and drink; how a man should wear his 
hair; how a woman should cut the sleeves of her dress. 
Laws against extravagance in dress were very severe. 

Intolerance in Massachusetts. — Massachusetts had be¬ 
come especially intolerant of Quakers. When members of 
that sect insisted on coming back into the colony after having 
been sent away, a law was passed inflicting the death pen¬ 
alty. Between 1659 and 1661 four Quakers, one a woman, 
were hanged in Boston. The people of Massachusetts never 


62 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

approved of putting the Quakers to death. It was the 
government that resorted to such a harsh course, and the 
people forced the repeal of the law. 

Harvard College Founded. — Many of the settlers of 
Massachusetts were men who had received a good education, 
and who, therefore, knew the value of learning. In 1636 
the general court (assembly) established a college at New 



The Oldest Buildings of Harvard College 
After an early picture in the possession of the Massachusetts Historical Society 


Town (now Cambridge). This college, Harvard, is the 
oldest in the United States. Later each colony composing 
the New England Confederation passed a law requiring every 
town to establish a school. 

Towns and Occupations in New England. — On account 
of the stony soil, there were few large plantations in New 
England. As each community formed a separate church 
organization, it was convenient for the people to live close 
together. Thus there grew up a number of towns, each 
built around its meeting house. 1 Comfortable homes had 
taken the place of the rough cabins of the first settlers. 
Adventurous skippers in boats of their own making traveled 

1 However, for government and church purposes, the town not only 
included the village itself, but so much of the surrounding country a? 
was within easy reach of the meeting house. 









GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES 63 

along the coast, going as far as the Dutch settlement in New 
York harbor. Fish, furs, and lumber were shipped to Eng¬ 
land and exchanged for manufactured articles. 

New Amsterdam. — Between the New England colonies 
and the Southern colonies was the Dutch colony of New 
Netherland. After some years of slow growth this colony 
had developed considerably. In 1660 New Netherland had 
a population of about eight thousand. Settlements had 



The Stadt Huys, New York, 1679 


extended to a considerable distance up the Hudson. There 
were about sixteen hundred inhabitants in the town of New 
Amsterdam. The Dutch had allowed religious freedom, and 
thus had attracted to the colony people from all parts of the 
world. Eighteen languages could be heard in New Amster¬ 
dam. All public documents were published in Dutch, 
French, and English. New Amsterdam did not extend 
above Wall street. This street received its name from a wall, 
or palisade, which stretched across the island to protect the 
town from inroads of the Indians. Dutch customs and 
Dutch ideas predominated. Many of the houses were 
built of yellow brick, with the gable end facing the street, 





64 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

according to the custom in Holland. The floors were 
covered with white sand. The housekeeper, with the usual 
Dutch neatness, kept everything within doors scrupulously 
clean. In the town were gardens, orchards, and pastures. 
Many of the crooked streets that so bewilder the stranger 
who now visits the oldest parts of New York City were cow 
oaths when the town was named New Amsterdam. Beyond 
the wall that enclosed the town were the “bouweries,” as 
the Dutch called their farms. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Give the early history of New Hampshire. What motives 
influenced the New Englanders who settled Connecticut? How did 
they organize their government? What was remarkable about their 
constitution? 

2. How did Roger Williams become the founder of Rhode Island? 
What was the government of his settlement at Providence? Why was 
it unique? Why did the Puritans distrust Rhode Island? 

3. What was the purpose of the New England Confederation, and 
what were the provisions for government under it? Why was the 
Rhode Island colony left out of the Confederation? Was the king’s 
consent asked for the organizing of the Confederation? 

4. Puritans in England establish a commonwealth with Oliver 
Cromwell as Protector. Puritans in Maryland seize the government. 
Success of the Puritans in England causes a migration of Cavaliers to 
Virginia. Why should the children in Virginia and in many other 
states be interested in the Cavaliers of England? 

5. What was the Restoration? What is the place of the Puritans 
in history? 

6. Describe the early colonial life in Virginia. Show how the early 
life in Maryland was similar to, and the early life in Massachusetts was 
different from, that in Virginia. 

7. Why did the Quakers have so much suffering in Massachusetts? 
When and where was the first college in the United States founded? 

8. Give an account of early life in New Amsterdam. 

Project Exercises 

1. Compare the attitude of Massachusetts, Maryland and Rhode 
Island on religious matters. Tell which one accords with the laws of 
our country to-day. 

2. Contrast the New England towns with Southern plantations. 
How do you account for the different kind of settlement? 


CHAPTER VI 


THE ENGLISH COLONIES AFTER 1660 

The Independent Spirit of New England. — Charles II 
soon turned his attention to New England where the colo¬ 
nists were, as he thought, developing too rapidly the spirit 
of independence. The New England colonies had grown 
accustomed to manage their affairs without thought of the 
home government. Some of them, it will be remembered, 
had established the New England Confederation without 
permission from England. Massachusetts went further 
when she set up a mint with which she coined money for 
more than thirty years. Usually only independent govern¬ 
ments have the right to coin money. 

Every New England colony, except Massachusetts, ex¬ 
isted without a charter from the king. Connecticut, antici¬ 
pating some move on the part of Charles II, prudently 
asked him for a charter and thereby gained his favor. Rhode 
Island was already in the king’s good graces; he liked that 
colony because the Puritans disliked it. Charles granted 
Connecticut and Rhode Island very liberal charters. The 
inhabitants were guaranteed the liberties they already en¬ 
joyed. They were also allowed to elect their own officials 
and make their own laws, the king not even reserving the 
right of veto. The religious freedom prevailing in Rhode 
Island was guaranteed by a provision in the charter forbid¬ 
ding that any person be molested for holding his own opinion 
in matters of religion. 

Charles had executed some of the judges that had sent 
his father to the block. Two of these judges, or regicides 
as they were called, fleeing England, took refuge in the New 
Haven colony. Because New Haven refused to give them 

65 


66 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OP THE UNITED STATES 

up, Charles put an end to that colony by annexing it to 
Connecticut. 

The Massachusetts Charter Revoked. — The king’s dis¬ 
pleasure was next visited upon Massachusetts. Charles 
demanded that the laws of the colony be so changed that 
others besides members of the Puritan Church should be 
allowed to vote; that the form of worship of the Church of 
England be permitted; and that the inhabitants be made to 



Reduced Facsimile of the Heading, Signature, and Seal 
of the Massachusetts Charter of 1628-1629 


take the oath of allegiance to the king. Although commis¬ 
sioners with troops were sent over in 1664 to enforce obedi¬ 
ence, the colony refused to comply ,/ith the demands. War 
was then in progress between England and Holland, and 
Charles let the case against Massachusetts rest. However, 
he had no idea of abandoning it altogether, and finally in 
1684, when Massachusetts still refused to comply, he revoked 
its charter. The colony became a royal province. 

King Philip’s War. — Charles II did not abolish the New 
England Confederation, but the annexation of New Haven 
to Connecticut, leaving only three colonies to compose 
the union, weakened the confederation too greatly for it to 
accomplish much further good. Yet, before the confeder- 























THE ENGLISH COLONIES AFTER 1660 


67 


ation passed out of existence it conquered in the most terrible 
Indian war that New England experienced. It is known as 
King Philip’s war, from the name that the whites had given 
a prominent Indian chief. The war began in 1675 when the 
Indians surprised a small town in the Plymouth colony, 
killing many of the inhabitants, and committing all kinds of 
outrages. The Indians then scoured the country, murdering 
settlers and pillaging and burning villages. Race hatred 
stirred the savages. The confederation raised from Massa¬ 
chusetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut an army of volunteers 
that fought for a year before subduing the Indians. During 
the war twelve towns in Plymouth and Massachusetts were 
totally destroyed and forty others suffered the miseries of 
Indian warfare. 

The Navigation Acts. — It was the common belief of 
Europe that the commerce of colonies should be used for 
the benefit of the mother country. While Cromwell was 
ruling England, the first law of navigation and trade was 
enacted. Others were enacted from time to time. These 
laws prohibited English colonies from selling many of their 
products anywhere but in England, and from buying most 
of their supplies in other than English markets. English 
merchants could thus force the colonists to charge low prices 
for much that they sold, and to pay high prices for much that 
they bought. Virginia and Maryland had built up with 
other parts of the world an extensive trade in tobacco. 
The navigation laws so cheapened the price of tobacco, 
while making the price of almost everything else rise, that 
great distress was caused in these colonies. Later, the 
navigation laws worked hardship on all the colonies. 

The English and the Dutch Become Rivals. — England 
had always claimed the territory included in New Nether- 
land by virtue of Cabot’s discovery, but had never tried to 
oust the Dutch, because for more than a century England 
and Holland, the leading Protestant nations of Europe, had 
lived in close friendship. Now, however, competition in 
trade was estranging the two countries. Spain, the former 


68 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


commercial rival of England, had declined; but Holland, 
not England, had taken her place as the chief commercial 
nation. Much of England’s trade with other nations and 
with her American colonies, and, in fact, the greater part 
of the commerce of the world, was carried in Dutch vessels. 
England’s old jealousy of the commercial greatness of the 
Spaniards was transferred to the Dutch. The purpose of 
the first navigation law, forbidding trade with England and 
her colonies except in English ships, was primarily to injure 
Dutch trade, and the law had already provoked a war with 
Holland. 

The Dutch colony, situated between New England and the 
Southern colonies, prevented England from uniting her 
possessions in America; it hindered her from enforcing her 
navigation laws, for the English and the Dutch colonies 
carried on a smuggling trade with one another. Moreover, 
New Amsterdam had one of the finest harbors in the world, 
and the Hudson River was a highway for bringing a great 
fur trade to the town. 

The Dutch Surrender New Netherland. — In 1664, at 
a time when England and Holland were at peace, Charles II 
granted New Netherland to his brother James, Duke of 
York. An English fleet and troops appeared in the harbor 
of New Amsterdam. The city was in a defenseless condition, 
but brave old Peter Stuyvesant wanted to fight. Finding, 
however, that the people would not support him, he was 
compelled to surrender. All the other Dutch settlements 
fell into the hands of the English. The names of the colony 
of New Netherland and the town of New Amsterdam were 
changed to New York in honor of the duke. 

New York grew steadily under English rule. The colony 
had many royal governors, some of them good, but most of 
them bad, and as was the case with other colonies, the 
assembly had to strive against unjust taxation. 

The Carolinas. — In 1663 Charles II gave the country 
south of Virginia to eight of his friends. In the grant the 
territory was called Carolina. It extended westward to the 


THE ENGLISH COLONIES AFTER 1660 69 

South Sea (Pacific Ocean), and so far southward that it 
included a part of the present state of Florida. The king 
ignored the fact that Spain both held Florida and claimed 
much of the region now in the Carolinas. 

Settlements had already been made in what is now North 
Carolina. As far back as 1653 emigrants from Virginia 
had begun to settle on the 
Albemarle Sound. Many 
were Quakers who wished 
to escape the penalties with 
which they were threatened 
in Virginia. The first colo¬ 
nists who came to Carolina 
direct from England landed 
in 1670 on the Ashley River 
in the present state of South 
Carolina. 

It was not the intention 
of the proprietors to form 
two colonies in Carolina, but 
the settlement on Albemarle 
Sound and the settlement 
on the Ashley River were 
so far apart that from the 
outset they were distinct 
communities, each with its own assembly and generally 
with its own governor. From Albemarle Sound developed 
the colony of North Carolina, and from the Ashley River 
grew the colony of South Carolina. 

The u Grand Model.” — Lord Shaftesbury, one of the 
proprietors, and John Locke, the noted philosopher, drew 
up an elaborate constitution for Carolina. It was known 
as the “Grand Model,” or “Fundamental Constitutions.” 
It provided for orders of nobility and great landowners and a 
complicated set of courts. The laboring class were to be 
held as “leet-men,” a kind of serfs. The “Grand Model” 
was impracticable for any community. It was least of all 









70 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

suitable for a people who breathed the free air of a new world. 
It was never carried fully into effect, and was long a subject 
of quarrel between the settlers and the proprietors. 

Early Life in North Carolina. — The settlement along 
Albemarle Sound had been organized by the proprietors 
into the county of Albemarle. There were no towns, as 
the settlers lived on scattered farms which they had cleared 
by hard labor. They planted tobacco and raised cattle; 
from the pines they obtained tar and turpentine. In these 
products they built up a flourishing trade with New England. 
They loved liberty and rebelled when the proprietors at¬ 
tempted to put unjust restraint upon them. When an 
effort was made to enforce the navigation laws, which would 
have stopped the trade with New England, they put the gov¬ 
ernor and council in jail. They deposed the next governor, 
and still another they banished from the colony. 

From 1691 to 1712 the colonies of North Carolina and 
South Carolina had one governor, who resided at Charleston. 
His deputy had charge of affairs in North Carolina. With 
few exceptions the deputies appointed for North Carolina 
were unfit to govern the colony. The time was one of 
almost constant disorder. Nevertheless, the population 
increased steadily. Huguenots had settled near the mouth 
of the Tar River; Swiss and Germans had founded the town 
of New Bern. 

War with the Tuscaroras. — In 1711 there was a sudden 
uprising of the Indians, led by the Tuscaroras. 1 For three 
days the tomahawk spared neither sex nor age. Quiet was 
restored only when the colonists defeated the Indians in a 
battle on the Neuse River. Two years later the Tuscaroras 
again gave trouble. Then they were dealt such crushing 
blows that their power for mischief was brought to an end. 

1 The Tuscaroras belonged to the Iroquois family of Indians. After 
their defeat in North Carolina, the Tuscaroras moved to upper New 
York and there joined the powerful confederacy of five Iroquois tribes 
which the white settlers called the “Five Nations.” The confederacy 
then became known as the “Six Nations” (see page 48). 


THE ENGLISH COLONIES AFTER 1660 


n 

The Settlement on the Ashley River. — The colonists 
from England who landed on the Ashley River in 1670 made 
their settlement on the west bank of the river, and named it 
Charles Town for their king. In 1680 the town was trans¬ 
ferred to the peninsula be¬ 
tween the Ashley and Cooper 
rivers; and thus began the 
present city of Charleston. 

The granting of religious free¬ 
dom in Carolina brought im¬ 
migrants to the Ashley River 
colony. Within a few years 
a considerable number of 
Englishmen had come from 
Barbados, in the West In¬ 
dies, and Dutchmen from 
New York, and, most of all, 

English people direct from 
the mother country. The 
Indians were hostile, and the early settlers had to build their 
houses and clear their fields with weapons by their side. 

The Huguenots. — In the latter part of the seventeenth 
century, many French Protestants (Huguenots) came to 
America to escape persecution. Most of them settled in 
South Carolina. They came from the most substantial class 
of the French people. Many of them were well educated, 
and all of them were thrifty and of sterling character. They 
left an impress upon the colony that lasts to this day. 

Early Life in South Carolina. — South Carolina did not 
grow from rural communities, as the older southern colonies 
did; nor did it grow from a number of towns, as was the case 
in New England, but developed from a single town. Charles¬ 
ton was the center of all political, social, and commercial 
activity. In 1700 the colony had about five thousand in¬ 
habitants, more than half of whom lived in the town. None 
of the plantations were so far distant that the fortifications 
of the town could not be easily reached. 










>2 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

The planters sold their products to merchants in Charleston 
who, in turn, shipped them to all parts of the world, thus 
making Charleston important as a seaport. The chief staple 
of the colony at this time was rice. Afterward, the cultiva¬ 
tion of indigo was also found to be very profitable. Slaves 



Charleston in 1673 
From an old print 


were numerous from an early period, as negro labor was 
better suited than white to the cultivation of crops in the 
lowlands. 

The Carolinas Become Royal Colonies. — As was the case 
with her sister colony, South Carolina had much trouble on 
account of the interference of the proprietors. In a period 
of four years there were six changes of governors, for it was 
difficult to find one who was satisfactory to both colonists 
and proprietors. In 1719 the people deposed the governor ap¬ 
pointed by the proprietors and petitioned the king (George I) 
to make South Carolina a royal colony. The king granted 
the petition. In 1729 the crown purchased the rights of the 
proprietors, and formally divided Carolina into North and 
South Carolina. 








THE ENGLISH COLONIES AFTER 1660 


73 


Charles II and Virginia. — Instead of showing gratitude for 
the loyalty of the Virginians to his father and himself, 
Charles II began immediately to oppress them. At the 
command of the king, Sir William Berkeley, governor of 
Virginia, appointed many of Charles’ worthless favorites 
to offices in the colony. These men misappropriated the 
public money. The assembly itself voted its members large 
salaries, laid heavy taxes, and passed many objectionable 
laws; yet the governor refused to call an election for a new 
assembly. The king went so far as to make a present of 
Virginia to two of his friends, Lord Arlington and Lord 
Culpepper. 

Bacon’s Rebellion. — It seemed as if the colony was going 
to be ruined, and to add to its troubles, the Indians attacked 
the outlying settlements. 

Because the governor did 
not seem to be taking 
the proper steps to stop 
the massacres, some of the 
planters on the frontier, 
led by Nathaniel Bacon, 
made war upon the In¬ 
dians without permission 
of the government, which 
of course was unlawful. 

Berkeley declared Bacon 
a rebel, and thereupon 
(1676) a civil war, known as Bacon’s Rebellion, broke 
out. Many of the most prominent inhabitants of the 
colony supported Bacon. With his little army Bacon 
marched against Berkeley, who had collected a large force. 
Berkeley was defeated and was obliged to flee. Bacon 
seemed master of the situation, but a fever seized him and 
he died. With the death of the leader, resistance to the 
government was soon quelled, and Berkeley was once more 
in complete control. He hanged more than twenty of 
Bacon’s followers. When King Charles heard of Berkeley’? 



Bacon and Berkeley 



74 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

vindictive work, he exclaimed, “The old fool has put to 
death more people in that naked country than I did here for 
the murder of my father.” 

Berkeley was removed from the governorship. Yet the 
reforms, shown by Bacon's Rebellion to be necessary, were 
ignored. The king preferred to rule the colony in his own way. 
The grant to Arlington and Culpepper was annulled, but dis¬ 
honest officials, unjust taxes, and the navigation laws con¬ 
tinued to cause irritation. Bacon’s Rebellion has been aptly 
described as a “forerunner of the American Revolution.” 

Renewal of Persecutions in England. — The overthrow of 
the Commonwealth and the restoration of the monarchy 
were followed by renewed persecution of the dissenters in 
England. To dissent from the Church of England was still 
regarded by royalists as disloyalty to the monarchy. The 
royalists, coming again into control of parliament, passed 
harsh laws for the purpose of forcing dissenters to conform 
to the worship of the Established Church. The “Conven¬ 
ticle Act” forbade more than five persons to gather together 
to worship in any manner other than that prescribed by the 
Established Church. The “Five Mile Act” prohibited a 
preacher who denied the doctrines of the Established Church 
or who refused to take an oath never to take up arms against 
the king, from going within five miles of any town or place 
where he had previously preached or taught. For failure 
to comply with one or the other of the laws many dissenters 
were thrown into prison. Some were banished from Eng¬ 
land. John Bunyan, the author, remained twelve years 
in prison because he would not obey these laws. It was 
while in prison that he began to write his masterpiece, 
The Pilgrim's Progress. 

The Quakers. — Of all the dissenting sects, the Quakers 
suffered the most. Because the Quakers, or Friends, as 
they called themselves, were at that time mostly poor people 
and because many of their customs were peculiar, they were 
objects of contempt and ridicule. Special laws were enacted 
against their practicing their religion. Often Quakers, even 


THE ENGLISH COLONIES AFTER 1660 


75 


women and children, were publicly flogged or put in the 
pillory. Although the sect was small, soon more than four 
thousand Quakers were confined in jails. 

William Penn. — William Penn was a 
noted Quaker and one of the best of men. 

Though born to wealth, he was a friend 
of the lowly; though a favorite at court, 
he joined a despised and persecuted sect, 
and even suffered imprisonment for his 
religious convictions. Penn thought a 
refuge might be found in America for the 
distressed Quakers. With other Quakers 
he purchased New Jersey, a colony lying 
between the Hudson and the Delaware, 
which Lord Berkeley and Sir George Car- 
taret had founded in 1665. Some Quaker 
immigrants came over to the colony. 1 



A Quaker of the 
17TH Century 



William Penn 

At the age of 22. After the portrait 
attributed to Sir Peter Lely 

nally due to Penn’s father, who 


Penn Receives Grant 
to Pennsylvania. — But 

Penn wished to found 
still another colony for 
Quakers, and he appealed 
to Charles II for assist¬ 
ance. The king had 
never favored religious 
persecution; parliament 
had passed the laws 
against dissenters con¬ 
trary to his advice. Now 
Charles was friendly to 
Penn, and, moreover, he 
owed Penn a large sum 
of money, a debt origi- 
had been a distinguished 


1 New Jersey had formed a part of New Netherland and had been 
given to Berkeley and Cartaret by the Duke of York. In 1702 the 
Quakers sold to the crown their rights to the colony. 





76 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


admiral. Penn asked Charles to grant him lands north of 
Maryland in payment of the debt. Charles, who had lands 
in abundance in America, but no money, gave Penn a 
charter making him proprietor of the territory which the 
king called Pennsylvania. In order that the new territory 
might have an outlet to the sea, Penn persuaded the Duke 
of York to give him Delaware. At that time it was owned 
by the duke as a part of New York. Delaware and the 
southern part of Pennsylvania were within the limits of 
Maryland, as fixed by its charter, and Lord Baltimore 
protested against the loss of territory. But he protested 
in vain; the king of England thought it a small matter to 
give away the same land twice. 1 


The Great 
Migration of 
Quakers. — Penn 
advertised his 
province exten¬ 
sively, offering 
land for sale at a 
low price. H e 
declared that in 
his colony there 
should be abso¬ 
lute freedom of 
conscience and 
equal justice to all 
men, Indians as 
well as whites. 
The Quakers in 
England were 

enthusiastic over the liberal and humane plans of Penn, 
and the first shiploads, which arrived in 1681, were 



**&&&** 

Face showing Penn Arms Face showing Baltimore Arms 

Boundary Stone Set up every Five Miles 
Along Mason and Dixon’s Line 


1 The dispute about the boundary between Pennsylvania and 
Maryland was finally settled in 1767, when Charles Mason and Jeremiah 
Dixon completed the survey of the boundary line which has ever since 
been known as “Mason and Dixon’s Line.” 





















THE ENGLISH COLONIES AFTER 1660 


71 


quickly followed by many others. Penn himself came over 
in 1682 and founded Philadelphia, the “City of Brotherly 
Love.” He immediately made a treaty of friendship with 
the Indians of the surrounding country. The Indians who 
made the pledge to Penn never broke it, and the peace- 
loving Quakers kept theirs to the natives. It was not 
until many years later, when the settlers pushing into the 
interior met other tribes, that Pennsylvania suffered from 
Indian wars. 

Rapid Growth of Pennsylvania. — There was such a rush 
of immigrants to Pennsylvania that within three years the 
wilderness had changed to a thriving community of eighteen 
thousand souls. Philadelphia claimed two thousand in¬ 
habitants. Its streets, regularly laid out, were adorned by 
many substantial brick residences. 

The proprietary rights to Pennsylvania remained with the 
Penn family until the Revolution. The immigration that 
set in so strongly with the founding of the colony continued 
without interruption. Settlers came from all parts of the 
world, and though Pennsylvania was the last colony to be 
settled, except Georgia, its growth was so rapid that at the 
outbreak of the Revolution only two colonies 1 had a greater 
population. Germans and Scotch-Irish were more numerous 
in Pennsylvania than in any other colony. They opened 
up the fertile valley of the Susquehanna and the country 
farther toward the mountains. Thence they poured like 
a steady stream into the interior of the Southern colonies. 

The Tyranny of James II. — Charles II died in 1685. He 
had few good traits, the chief being his dislike of persecution. 2 
He was selfish, immoral, unreliable, and extravagant. 
Yet, possessing the tact that his father lacked, he knew 
how far he could go without causing the people to rebel. 
He was a better king than his brother, the Duke of York, 
who succeeded him as James II, and who made himself very 

1 Virginia and Massachusetts. 

* The opposition of Charles II to religious persecution was largely 
due to a wish to spare thr r '" + ^ o1l *cs, for he was at heart a Catholic. 


78 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

obnoxious by his attempt to revive in England the rule by 
the divine right of kings. 

Rule of Andros. — James II treated his subjects in Amer¬ 
ica as tyrannically as he treated his subjects in England. 
Charles II had died before he could give Massachusetts a 
charter to take the place of the one that he had revoked. 

James II not only refused to 
give Massachusetts a new char¬ 
ter, but he revoked the charters 
of Connecticut and Rhode 
Island. In order to control 
America more easily, he planned 
to unite all the colonies under 
one government, and to carry 
out this design he made Sir 
Edmund Andros governor of 
New England, New York, and 
New Jersey. • Thus the new 
governor’s authority extended 
from Maine to Delaware. The 
seat of government was at 
Boston. Andros’ rule was des¬ 
potic; assemblies were abolished 
and exorbitant taxes were levied. Fortunately his power 
did not last long. 

“Revolution of 1688.” — In attempting to restore the 
Catholic Church to its former position in England, James II 
went one step too far. Although much of the prejudice 
against Catholics on religious grounds had passed away, 
the people rose in revolution because they feared that the 
pope might again secure political control of England. In 
response to an invitation from leading men of the kingdom, 
William, Prince of Orange, the head of the Dutch govern¬ 
ment, landed in England with Dutch troops. The people 
flocked to his standard. James, seeing that resistance was 
useless, fled to France in 1688. Parliament thereupon 
proclaimed William and his wife, Mary, joint sovereigns 



Sir Edmund Andros 
After the portrait in the State 
Library at Hartford 


THE ENGLISH COLONIES AFTER 1660 


79 


of England. William was the nephew and Mary the daughter 
of the fugitive king and both were Protestants. Parliament 
also passed the Bill of Rights, which William and Mary 
accepted. The Bill of Rights fixed firmly in England the 
principle that all power lies with the people and, through 
them, with parliament. So far as England is concerned, 
the divine right of kings was forever shattered. Thereafter 
parliament could make or unmake kings. 

A New Charter for Massachusetts. — When news of the 
flight of James II reached Boston, the people of Massa¬ 
chusetts threw Andros into prison. William and Mary 
gave to Massachusetts a new charter. While the charter 
did away with the requirement that voters should be mem¬ 
bers of the Congregational Church, it took from the colony 
the right to select its governor. This right was reserved to 
the crown. Plymouth was annexed to Massachusetts and 
New Hampshire was made a separate colony. The liberal 
charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island were restored. 1 

The Protestants in Maryland. — By 1689 immigration 
had so changed the population in Maryland that there were 
comparatively few Catholics in the colony. In that year 
the Protestants, relying upon the fact that William and 
Mary were Protestants, seized the government and petitioned 
the sovereigns to take the control of the colony from Lord 
Baltimore. William and Mary did so, and Maryland be¬ 
came a crown colony. Twenty-five years later, the Lords 
Baltimore having become Protestants, the colony was 

1 About this time a witchcraft craze arose in Salem, Massachusetts. 
It was still common for people all over the civilized world to believe in 
witchcraft. Massachusetts had suffered much from Indian wars, 
terrible conflagrations, and scourges of smallpox. The belief that the 
colony was under some evil spell overwhelmed the people of Salem, who 
placed the blame on witches. The craze became so violent that in the 
year 1692 more than a hundred men and women were arrested in Salem 
on the charge of practicing witchcraft. Of this number nineteen were 
executed, mainly upon the flimsy testimony of children who afterwards 
confessed that they had sworn falsely. The delusion did not last long, 
and the poor creatures still confined in jail were released. 


8 o HISTORY OR THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


restored to the family, and Maryland continued to be ruled 
by proprietors until the Revolution. 

Georgia. — Georgia was the last English colony settled. 
Other colonies had been settled for religious or commercial 
reasons, but Georgia was founded through the desire of 
James Edward Oglethorpe to help men who were suffering 
from debt. Oglethorpe had served with distinction in the 


British army. In 1732 he was 
a member of parliament. At 
that time the law allowed a 
creditor to keep his debtor in 
prison until the debt was paid. 
Thus honest men who had met 
with reverses might end their 
days in jail. It grieved Ogle¬ 
thorpe to see the jails in Eng¬ 
land crowded with these 
unfortunate men. He con¬ 
ceived the plan of settling with 
their creditors and giving them 



James Edward Oglethorpe homes in the New World where 


they might begin life over. 


As Oglethorpe was not rich enough to carry out the plans 
alone, he persuaded other philanthropists of England to 
join him. Oglethorpe shrewdly explained to King George II 
that a colony planted to the south of the Carolinas would 
serve as a buffer against the Spaniards, who, claiming the 
Carolinas, were threatening those colonies. The king 
granted to Oglethorpe and his associates the country lying 
between the Savannah and the Altamaha rivers and extend¬ 
ing westward to the Pacific Ocean. Oglethorpe and his 
associates, who were named trustees of the colony, were 
to serve without pay. The colony was called Georgia in 
honor of the king. To make sure that only desirable emi¬ 
grants were carried over to the new colony, every person 
who wished to go had to prove that he was a person of good 
character. 


THE ENGLISH COLONIES AFTER 1660 8l 

Settlement of Savannah. — Oglethorpe, at his own ex* 

pense, crossed the Atlantic with the first colonists. Earfy 
in 1733 they built on a high bluff overlooking the Savannah 
River, and not far from its mouth, a town which they called 
Savannah. 

Oglethorpe wished to make friends with all the Indian 
tribes in Georgia. Through Tomo-chi-chi, an aged chief, he 
sent invitations to the principal chiefs of the tribes in the 
country round about to gather in convention at Savannah. 
The invitation was accepted, and the Indians ceded to the 
whites a great area of land. The two races also adopted 
regulations for conducting trade. On account of the peace¬ 
ful relations thus formed with the Indians the colony was 
spared in its infancy such savage acts as had afflicted other 
colonies. 

Religious Exiles and Other Immigrants. — In the year 

following the founding of the colony there came to Georgia 
a considerable number of 
Lutherans from Salzburg in 
Europe, who had left their 
homes on account of religious 
persecution. They settled 
the town of Ebenezer, and 
by their industry and thrift 
became useful citizens. In 
the next year Moravians, also 
fleeing from religious persecu¬ 
tion, arrived in Georgia and 
settled near the Salzburgers. 

In order to defend the 
colony against the Spaniards, 
the trustees sent over a party of Scotch Highlanders and 
settled them on the frontier nearest Florida. Oglethorpe 
settled other colonists on the island of St. Simons as a further 
protection against the Spaniards. The town of Frederica was 
built on the island and a fort was erected. Learning that 
the Spaniards were endeavoring to stir up the Indians against 



Seal of the Georgia Colon* 


82 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

the English, Oglethorpe again sought the leading chiefs. 
Appearing in their midst, while they were holding a council, 
he persuaded them by his eloquence to renew their treaty of 
friendship with the English. 

Early Industries. — Mulberry trees grew so plentifully in 
Georgia and the silk worm did so well in the mild climate, 
that the trustees hoped to make the culture of silk the chief 
industry of the colony. On the introduction of slavery the 
planting of rice and indigo became more profitable, and the 
silk culture was abandoned. 

Georgia a Royal Colony. — Georgia outgrew the ability of 
the trustees to care for it, and in 1752 was surrendered to the 
king. It continued a royal colony until the Revolution. 

English colonies were now firmly planted in an unbroken 
line along the Atlantic coast between Canada and Florida 


Topics and Questions 

1. The independent spirit of the New England colonists was dis* 
pleasing to Charles II. Describe the charters given by Charles II to 
Connecticut and Rhode Island. Relate the manner in which Massa¬ 
chusetts lost her charter. Give an account of King Philip's war. 

2. Why did the Navigation Acts, which seemed better for English¬ 
men at home, bear heavily upon the English colonists in America? 

3. Upon what ground did England base her claim to the territory 
included in New Netherland? Why did England refrain so long from 
pressing her claim and why did she finally press it? Tell how New 
Netherland passed from the Dutch to the English and became New 
York. 

4. What disposition did Charles II make of the country south of 
Virginia? What were the original bounds of the Carolina grant? 
What colony furnished emigrant settlers for North Carolina? Whence 
came the first settlers in South Carolina? How did there come to be 
two colonies in Carolina? Tell about the “Grand Model." 

5. Describe early life in North Carolina. Account for the disorders 
in the early years of North Carolina. Mention some of the nation¬ 
alities that formed the growing population of North Carolina. Give 
some facts relating to the war with the Tuscaroras. What became of 
these defeated Indians? 

6. Account for the settling and naming of Charleston. Give the 
reason for the rapid coming of settlers to South Carolina. Whence 


THE ENGLISH COLONIES AFTER 1660 


83 

came these settlers? Did the Huguenots make desirable settlers for 
South Carolina? Describe Charleston as the center of South Carolina 
life. Why were there so many slaves in this colony? How and when 
did the Carolinas become royal colonies? 

7. What conditions led to Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia? What 
were the chief events of this civil war? What were its results? 

8. What were the “Conventicle Act” and the “Five Mile Act?” 
What sect suffered most from these laws? Give a description of the 
treatment of the Quakers in England. Who was William Penn? 
Why did he become interested in the colony of New Jersey? Why 
did he found Pennsylvania? Why did he ask for Delaware also? 
What colony’s territory was infringed upon by the Pennsylvania 
grants? Explain the origin of “Mason and Dixon’s Line.” 

9. What inducements did Penn offer to settlers, and what treatment 
did he give the Indians? Tell about the great migration of Quakers 
and the founding of Philadelphia. What treaty did Penn make and 
how was it kept? Describe the rapid growth of Pennsylvania. What 
form of government did Pennsylvania have until the American Revolu¬ 
tion? 

10. Compare Charles II and James II. Give facts to show the 
tyranny of James II towards America. Explain the “Revolution oi 
1688.” 

11. Who gave to Massachusetts a new charter? What was the 
Salem witchcraft craze? Why and by whom was Maryland made a 
royal colony? 

12. What led to the settling of Georgia? What were the bounds of 
the new land-grant? Was there a selection of colonists for Georgia? 
What were Oglethorpe’s dealings with the Indians? Name some of 
the nationalities, besides the English, that aided in the settling of 
Georgia. What industries were important to both Georgia and Eng* 
land? Under what conditions did Georgia become a royal colony? 

Project Exercises 

I- Write an essay giving a brief review of the motives leading to 
the settlement of the different English colonies. 

2. Point out on the map the location of each of the English colonieSr 

Important Dates: 

1653. Settlement of North Carolina. 

1664. New Netherland becomes New York. 

1670. Settlement of South Carolina. 

1681. Settlement of Pennsylvania. 

1733 * Settlement of Georgia. 


CHAPTER VII 


THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE ENGLISH 
AND THE FRENCH 

Marquette and La Salle. — The French had pushed 
their explorations on into the interior. The Indians had 
told them of a great river in the remote wilderness to the 
west, and Father Marquette set out 
with a few companions, in 1673, to 
find it. It was impossible for him to 
know that it was the Mississippi, 
for that river, at its nearest point 
seen by the Spaniards, was hundreds 
of miles to the south. The river 
that Marquette was seeking was 
supposed to flow southwestward and 
empty into the Pacific Ocean. On 
reaching the Mississippi, Marquette 
and his men floated on its broad 
current until they reached a point 
below the Arkansas. Here, becoming 
satisfied that the river did not flow 
toward the Pacific, but emptied into 
the Gulf of Mexico, Marquette 
abandoned further exploration and 
turned his canoes northward. 

Robert de La Salle, a native of 
From the statue in the Ro- p ra nce, who at an early age had 

ington emigrated to Canada, was stirred by 

the accounts of the great river 
brought back by Marquette’s party. Twice he attempted 
to lead an expedition from Canada to the Mississippi and 
failed; yet he set out a third time. Reaching the Missis* 

U 








ENGLISH AND FRENCH RIVALRY 


85 

sippi early in 1682, he guided his canoes down the river to 
its mouth. Here La Salle erected a cross and claimed for 
Louis XIV, king of France, all the Mississippi Valley, 
which he called Louisiana. 

Returning to Quebec La Salle sailed to France, where the 
king received him with favor. Although the country which 
La Salle had explored was 
claimed by Spain, Louis XIV, 
realizing the importance of 
holding the Mississippi Val¬ 
ley, placed La Salle in com¬ 
mand of an expedition that 
sailed from France for the 
purpose of planting a colony 
at the mouth of the river. 

The Frenchmen passed 
through mistake the mouth 
of the Mississippi and landed 
on the coast of Texas. The 
attempt at settlement failed. 

La Salle was assassinated by 
one of his companions who 
had mutinied. 

Settlements in the Southwest. — Fourteen years passed 
after the death of La Salle before a settlement was made in 
the province of Louisiana. In 1699, a Canadian, named 
Iberville, whom the king had sent out with colonists from 
France, began a settlement at Biloxi (now Mississippi) and 
in 1702 laid the foundations of the city of Mobile. In 
1718 Bienville, the brother of Iberville, settled with fifty 
others on the east bank of the Mississippi. This little 
hamlet marked the beginning of the city of New Orleans. 

Louisiana and Canada. — Communication was kept up 
between Canada and Louisiana, for in the north French¬ 
men had founded Detroit and extended their posts down 
into what is now Indiana. The French colonies continued 
weak, for as settlers came over from France very slowly. 



Robert Cavelier, Sieur 
de La Salle 


86 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

the population was still made up mostly of Indian traders. 
The settlements were far apart; most of them comprised 
only a fort, a mission, and a few surrounding farms. The 
development of the French colonies was in marked contrast 



Map Showing French Explorations 


to that of the English. The people of the English colonies 
had come to America to build up new communities, and their 
settlements spread no faster than the increase of population 
demanded. 
























ENGLISH AND FRENCH RIVALRY S* 

France Under Louis XTV. — Though her colonies in 
America were weak, France had become, by the time of the 
accession of William and Mary to the English throne (1689), 
the most powerful nation of Europe. Her treasury was the 
richest, her army the strongest, and her navy was rivaling 
the navies of England and Holland. The French king, 
Louis XIV, to make France even greater, had seized terri¬ 
tory from neighboring countries and was preparing for 
further conquests. Faced with the possibility of France 
becoming so powerful as to endanger the interests of all 
Europe, some of the continental nations, including Holland 
and Spain, had joined in a war against her. The leading 
spirit of the war against France was William, Prince of 
Orange, head of the government of Holland, and later king 
of England. It will be remembered that the policy of pre¬ 
venting one nation from becoming too strong at the expense 
of others is known as maintaining the balance of power. 

The opponents of France wished the aid of England, but 
Charles II, under the influence of Louis, not only refused 
to join with them but even made war upon Holland. Charles 
needed money. He could not get it in England without a 
vote of parliament, and he did not wish parliament to meet, 
for it would interfere with his ruling as he pleased. Louis 
gave Charles enough money to make him independent of 
parliament on condition that he would aid France. The 
disgraceful bribery of Charles was not known at the time by 
the people of England. 

England and France at War. — James II was willing to 
continue the arrangement that Charles had made with the 
French king. William of Orange, who had married Mary, 
the daughter of James II, consented to deprive his father- 
in-law of the English throne, not so much from a motive 
of personal ambition as from the desire to gain the help of 
England against France. William soon had his wish, for 
when Louis aided the deposed monarch in an attempt to 
regain the throne, England was forced (1689) into an alliance 
with Holland, Spain, and other countries for waging war 


88 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


against France. The alliance is known as the League of 
Augsburg. 

Hostilities Spread to the Colonies. — The contest for 
the balance of power in Europe, once begun, has not stopped 
to this day. For seventy-five years following the formation 
of the League of Augsburg, there occurred, with intervals of 
peace, a series of wars that affected America. In reality 
each war was but a continuation of the preceding ones. 
In these wars every prominent nation was involved. While 
their interests caused some of the nations to shift from 
time to time from one side to the other, England and France 
were always on opposite sides and were the leading con¬ 
testants. England, of course, had an interest in maintaining 
the balance of power, yet her chief concern was to secure 
the world’s commerce. Therefore, hostilities spread to the 
colonies in all parts of the world, the question of which 
nation should control America becoming particularly im¬ 
portant. 

King William’s War. — The first war (1689-1697), known 
in England as the War of the League of Augsburg, ended 
without decided advantage to either side. In America, 
where the war was named for England’s sovereign, King 
William’s War, French and Indians burned towns and 
killed settlers in New England and New York. New 
England colonists captured Port Royal, 1 in Acadia, 2 but 
the town was retaken by the French. 

Queen Anne’s War. — The peace following the first war 
was brief. The grandson of Louis XIV became king of 
Spain. Although Spain had declined as a power, she still 
found great wealth in her colonial possessions. Other 
nations, seeing in the rule of one royal house over France 
and Spain a combination that increased the danger to the 
rest of Europe, joined in a war to drive the new king of 
Spain from his throne. This war (1702-1713) is known 
in Europe as the War of the Spanish Succession. The great 
English general, the Duke of Marlborough, repeatedly de- 

1 Now Annapolis. * Now Nova Scotia. 


ENGLISH AND FRENCH RIVALRY 89 

feated the French armies in Europe; and though the war 
ended with the new king of Spain retaining his throne, the 
power of France was very much weakened. 

The American phase of this struggle is known as Queen 
Anne’s War, because Anne was then queen of England. 
Since Spain was allied with France, the South Carolina 
colonists made an unsuccessful attempt to capture St. 
Augustine, Florida. In turn, a French fleet aided by 
Spaniards attacked Charleston, but the Carolinians drove 
the invaders away. French and Indians again ravaged the 
frontiers of the northern colonies, and once more New 
Englanders captured Port Royal, Acadia. When peace was 
declared, England retained Acadia, changing the names, 
Acadia to Nova Scotia, and Port Royal to Annapolis. In 
addition France ceded to England Newfoundland and her 
claim to the country around Hudson Bay. Thus the war 
ended to the advantage of England both in Europe and 
America. 

War with Spain; Invasion of Georgia. — After a peace of 
about twenty-five years, Great Britain 1 went to war with 
Spain on account of the cruel treatment of English smug¬ 
glers in Spanish America. In 1742 the Spanish governor at 
St. Augustine, with a fleet of fifty vessels and an army of 
about five thousand men, appeared off St. Simons Island 
for the purpose of capturing the fort at Frederica and 
destroying the young colony of Georgia. General Ogle¬ 
thorpe, who was still in charge of the colony, had only 
about six hundred men and a few small vessels to oppose 
the invasion, but he saved the colony by inflicting upon 
the Spaniards a severe defeat. This was the last attempt 
of the Spaniards upon the southern colonies. 

King George’s War. — While the war with Spain was 
in progress, another general conflict broke out in Europe. 

1 Though England and Scotland had had for many years the same 
sovereign, their governments had been separate. In 1707 the two 
countries were united under one government, called the United King* 
dom of Great Britain, 


90 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

It arose from a quarrel over the question of a ruler for 
Austria — hence its name, the War of the Austrian Succes¬ 
sion— and lasted from 1744 to 1748. In this conflict Eng¬ 
land had as her chief ally Maria Theresa, a famous queen of 
Austria, and France had Frederick II of Prussia, commonly 
known as Frederick the Great. In the American phase of 
the war, known as King George’s War (George II being 
then king of Great Britain), New England militia, with the 
aid of a British fleet, captured Louisburg, a strong position 
on Cape Breton Island. There was much disappointment 
among the people of New England when, at the close of 
the war, Louisburg was returned to the French. The end 
of the third war found France still further weakened in 
power and shorn of much territory in Europe. In America, 

however, she retained all her 
possessions except those she had 
lost in Queen Anne’s War. 

The French and Indian 
War. — The last intercolonial 
war, known as the French and 
Indian War, had its origin in 
America. The Ohio Valley was 
claimed by both Great Britain 
and France, and each nation 
shared with its colonies the 
desire to control it. 

The French were more active. 
Having built a chain of forts 
along the St. Lawrence, the 
Great Lakes, and beyond the 
Mississippi, they took steps in 
1753 to occupy the Ohio Valley 
by erecting a line of forts south¬ 
ward from Lake Erie through the part of Pennsylvania that 
lies west of the Alleghany Mountains. Both Virginia and 
Pennsylvania claimed the territory thus threatened, and their 
governors were directed to warn the French that they were 



George Washington as a 
Young Man 
From the portrait by Peale 


ENGLISH AND FRENCH RIVALRY 


91 


trespassing upon land belonging to Great Britain, and to order 
them to leave. The governor of Virginia chose for his mes¬ 
senger Major George Washington, who, though only twenty- 
one, had shown such aptness for military affairs that he had 
been made adjutant general of the Virginia militia. Washing¬ 
ton, with a guide and a few companions, made the long 
journey in the depth of winter, and delivered the letter to the 
French commandant near Lake Erie. The French not only de¬ 
clined to retire, but the next year reached farther southward 
and erected Fort Duquesne on the site of the present city 
of Pittsburgh. Virginia prepared to defend her territory 
and sent Washington with a small force in the direction 
of Fort Duquesne. In 1754, he defeated a French scouting 
party near Great Meadows, in Pennsylvania. This skirmish 
brought on a war that drew in its wake nearly every nation 
of Europe. 

Washington Erects Fort Necessity. — Washington then 
built a fortification, which he called Fort Necessity. Here 
he was attacked by a French force, much the superior in 
numbers, and compelled to surrender. Great Britain now 
held nothing west of the Alleghany Mountains. Her 
colonies had waited too long, and the French had placed a 
strong force in the Ohio Valley. 

English Colonies Try to 
Unite. — The population of the 
English colonies vastly outnum¬ 
bered that of the French, but 
the English were under one 
great disadvantage. Each 
colony was engrossed in its own 
affairs, and some of them were 
in constant quarrels with their 
governors. Moreover, the 
claims of some of the colonies to 
the territory that the French coveted conflicted with one 
another. As a consequence, the colonies did not act together 
in matters concerning the common good. With a view to 



Device printed in Frank¬ 
lin’s “Pennsylvania 
Gazette,” 1754 






92 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

bringing about concerted action against the French, a 
convention met at Albany in 1754. Delegates from seven 
colonies attended. A plan of union, framed by Benjamin 
Franklin, was adopted, but it was not carried into effect. 
The crown thought it gave too much power to the colonies, 
and the colonies thought it gave too much power to the crown. 

Braddock’s Defeat. — In 1755 General Edward Brad- 
dock, who had been appointed commander-in-chief of the 
British forces in America, arrived in Virginia. Though 


Great Britain and France 
were at peace, the British 
government desired that 
Braddock should drive the 
French from the Ohio Val¬ 
ley. Braddock’s plan was 
to capture Fort Duquesne 
and then, moving north¬ 
ward, to conquer Canada. 
He was a soldier of the 
highest personal bravery, 
but was ill-suited for the 
task before him. Accus¬ 
tomed to the well-dis¬ 
ciplined armies of Europe 
he had no confidence in 
the colonial militia. The 
idea that savages could 



defeat British regulars 


seemed to him so pre¬ 
posterous that he treated 
with contempt the warning 


Route of Braddock’s Expedition 


of American officers that Indians did not fight in open 
battle but sought to take their foes by surprise. When 
within a few miles of Fort Duquesne the army, composed 
of regulars and Virginia militia, marched into an ambuscade. 
The French and their Indian allies, concealed behind trees 
and rocks, poured deadly volleys upon the English from 









ENGLISH AND FRENCH RIVALRY 


93 


three sides. The Virginia militia were accustomed to such 
modes of warfare and sought shelter from which they could 
fight the enemy on even terms. The British regulars were 
slaughtered in great numbers, and the survivors fled panic- 
stricken. Washington, who had accompanied Braddock as 
an aide, placed himself at the head of the Virginians and 
prevented the beaten army from being destroyed. General 
Braddock, who had been wounded, died in the retreat. 

The War Extends to Europe. — Two years after fighting 
began in America, war was formally declared between Great 
Britain and France (1756). The Seven Years’ War, as it 
is known in Europe, again involved many nations, but Prus¬ 
sia was now an ally of Great Britain, while Austria was an 
ally of France. For two years longer the fighting both in 
Europe and America was unfavorable to Great Britain, for 
the British government conducted the war with little vigor. 
In America the British generals were inefficient, while the 
French commander, General Montcalm, was active and 
skillful. He captured important posts in New York, while 
Indians constantly attacked the northern frontier. 

The Tide Turns in Favor of the British. — When William 
Pitt, one of the world’s greatest statesmen, came to the 
head of the British cabinet (1757), his vigorous war measures 
brought about a great change. Pitt decided that the best 
way to cripple France was to supply Frederick the Great 
with money to keep the Prussian armies in the field and to 
use the British military and naval forces to wrest from 
France her possessions in America. France, having used 
most of her energies in fighting the wars in Europe, had 
lost her strength upon the sea. Great Britain by con¬ 
trolling the routes to America could send over large forces 
and at the same time prevent France from doing so. Colo¬ 
nial troops added to the strength of the British armies in 
America. In the next two years the British, by capturing 
a string of French forts in the west, gained control of the 
Ohio Valley, and by capturing forts in northern New York 
prevented an invasion of the French from that direction. 


94 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Capture of Quebec. — In the summer of 1759 the British 
general, James Wolfe, ascended the St. Lawrence for the 
purpose of capturing Quebec. The city is divided into an 
upper and a lower town. The upper town is built on a high 
cliff of rock that rises almost perpendicularly from the river. 
Montcalm had fortified the lower town with strong works, 
which Wolfe knew it would be folly to assault. Wolfe 
determined to attempt the ascent of the lofty cliff, which 
was but feebly guarded. He moved his army to a point 

above the town, where under 
the cover of darkness, the 
troops disembarked and began 
the steep ascent by a path too 
narrow for two to go abreast. 
Some of the men had to pull 
themselves up by means of 
branches of trees and project¬ 
ing rocks. At break of day 
Wolfe had his men drawn up 
on the plains of Abraham, the 
plateau upon which the upper 
town stands. Montcalm war 
surprised to find Quebec threat¬ 
ened from a side which hr 
thought safe from attack, buu 
he lost no time in making an impetuous assault. The French 
could not break the British lines and fell back into the town, 
retreating the same night up the river in great disorder. Wolfe 
and Montcalm were killed. The garrison in the town sur¬ 
rendered within a few days. In the next year the British 
captured Montreal, and all Canada fell into their hands. 

The Effects of the French Wars. — The fall of Canada 
practically put an end to the war in America, though hos¬ 
tilities continued for some time in other parts of the world. 
In 1763 a treaty of peace was signed. The end of the fourth 
war showed a considerable shifting of power among the 
nations of Europe. Prussia, whose king, Frederick the 



General James Wolfe 


ENGLISH AND FRENCH RIVALRY 


95 


Great, had proved one of the ablest generals of modem 
times, had advanced to the front rank among military 
powers. Great Britain, by building up her navy to keep 
command of the seas and by gaining many new colonies, 
had taken the foremost place as a naval and colonial 
power — a position which she has ever since held. 



Quebec in the Eighteenth Century 
F rom an old print 


France was exhausted. In no way was she crippled more 
than in the loss of valuable colonial territory. India, for 
the control of which both Great Britain and France had 
contended, passed permanently to Great Britain, and thus 
was laid the foundation of Great Britain’s immense colonial 
empire of the East. 

In America, France ceded to Great Britain, Canada and 
her claim to all the country between the Alleghany Moun¬ 
tains and the Mississippi River except the city of New 
Orleans and territory surrounding it, which, with all 
Louisiana west of the Mississippi, France had previously 
ceded to Spain. In the war Great Britain had taken 
Cuba from Spain, an ally of France. Cuba was returned 
to Spain, and Florida was given to Great Bntain in ex- 


96 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

change. With the colonial holdings of France in North 
America wiped out, Great Britain and Spain were left the 
only possessors of territory on the continent. Great Britain 
now held all the continent east of the Mississippi (except 
New Orleans), from the Gulf of Mexico to the Polar regions. 
Spain held the country westward from the Mississippi and 
southward through Mexico. 

The French wars had most important effects upon the 
English colonies in America. They trained the colonial 
soldiers to warfare; they brought the colonies into closer 
touch with one another and made it easier for them to unite 
in time of danger; they removed from the colonial borders 
the hostile French, with the result that the colonies no 
longer felt so much need of protection from the mother 
country. In humbling the power of France, Great Britain 
had so strengthened her own colonies in America as to 
make it possible for them to assert and maintain their right 
to independence. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Give an account of the explorations of the Mississippi by 
Marquette and La Salle. What French settlements were made in 
the Southwest? How was communication kept up between Canada 
and Louisiana? How did the development of the French colonies 
differ from that of the English? 

2. What were the conditions in Europe that led to the intercolonial 
wars? Why did America become involved in these wars? Give the 
names and the principal events of the early intercolonial wars. 

3. What was the origin of the French and Indian War? Which of 
the rival nations got the first start toward the occupation of the Ohio 
Valley? Were all the English colonies equally interested in the occu¬ 
pation of the Ohio Valley? Through whom did the Virginia govern¬ 
ment act in warning the French government of this conflict of claims? 
Why was Major George Washington chosen for the task? How did 
Virginia defend her disputed territory? Why did Washington sur¬ 
render to the French at Fort Necessity? 

4. How did Benjamin Franklin try to create a union of all the Eng¬ 
lish colonies for this big land quarrel? How did the British crown sup¬ 
port his efforts? How did the colonies? 

5. When did Great Britain decide to take up the fighting in America 
over the disputed territory? Who was placed in command of the British 




CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA, 1763 
AFTER THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 

(ACCORDING TO PEACE OF PARIS) 
































. 






. 














































































































































































































































































































































































































ENGLISH AND FRENCH RIVALRY 


97 


forces, and what was his plan of action? Give the chances for and 
against his success. What allies gave the French generals better ideas 
of how to fight in America? How did Washington serve the army on 
the day of Braddock’s defeat? 

6. How did the war spread over Europe? Which side was ahead in 
America in 1757, and to what leader was its success largely due? When 
did Great Britain’s successes begin? 

7. What was the chief stronghold of the French in America? Why 
was it hard, for British forces to seize or destroy it? By whose bravery, 
energy, and wits was it taken? Describe the assault. What effect did 
the capture of Quebec have upon the war in America? 

8. What were the results of the war in Europe? What was done 
with the disputed territory in America when France and Great Britain 
made their treaty in 1763? What land did France own in North America 
at the close of the war? What did Great Britain own? What did Spain 
own? 

9. Had the series of Franco-English wars, which had cost so much } 
been of any advantage to the English colonists? 



Project Exercises 

1. Find on the map another large valley which would in time be 
controlled by the nation which secured the Ohio Valley. 

2. Write an essay showing that the four intercolonial wars were all 
a part of one big struggle between Great Britain and France for the 
leading place in the world. 

Important Dates: 

1689. Beginning of the first intercolonial war. 

1763. End of the last intercolonial war. 







CHAPTER VIII 


LIFE IN THE COLONIES (1763). SETTLEMENT OF 
THE WEST (1769-1776) 

Growth of the Colonies. — At the close of the French 
and Indian War, more than a century and a half had passed 
since John Smith and his associates planted at Jamestown 
the first permanent English settlement in America. The 
thirteen colonies, though a mere fringe along the Atlantic 
coast, were now firmly established, with a population of 
about a million and a half. Nearly all the people were of 
English descent, though other elements were strong in certain 
sections, as the Dutch in New York, the Irish and Germans 
in Pennsylvania, and French (Huguenots) in South Carolina 

Council and Delegates. — Politically every colony was 
independent of the others. Each colony had its own as¬ 
sembly and its own governor. 1 The assembly consisted of 
the council and delegates, generally sitting as separate houses. 
In some cases the governor appointed the members of the 
council, but the people always elected the delegates. Taxes 
for the support of the colonial government were laid by the 
assembly, but the governor could veto any act of that body, 
and also had the power to prorogue 2 or even dissolve it 
whenever he saw fit. 

The Three Forms of Government. —The colonies may 
be divided, according to their forms of government, into 
three classes: i. The royal colonies — New Hampshire^ 
New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, and Georgia; 2. The proprietary colonies — Penn¬ 
sylvania, Delaware, and Maryland; 3. The charter colonies 
— Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 

1 Except Delaware, which, while it had its own assembly, had the 
same governor as Pennsylvania. 

8 Prorogue: to discontinue the meetings for a time. 

98 


LIFE IN THE COLONIES 


99 


In a royal colony the king appointed the governor, who 
usually appointed the members of the council. Such acts 
of the assembly as the governor signed had to be sent to the 
king for final approval. 

In a proprietary colony the proprietor appointed the 
governor. The king retained the right to veto laws passed 
by the assemblies of Pennsylvania and Delaware, but re¬ 
linquished it in the case of Maryland. 

The colonies of Connecticut and Rhode Island held 
charters from the king guaranteeing a complete system of 
self-government. The governor and all other officials were 
elected by the people, and the king could not veto the laws 
of the assembly. The charter of Massachusetts was not 
so liberal. While it guaranteed to the colony many rights, 
the king appointed the governor and reserved the privilege of 
vetoing acts of the assembly. 

Negro Slavery. — There were negro slaves in every 
colony. In the North, where the climate was severe and 
the farms small, 
slave labor was not 
profitable, and ex¬ 
cept in New York, 
slaves were few. 

In the northern 
states slaves were 
generally made 
house servants. It 
was in the broad 
fields of the south¬ 
ern plantations that 
slaves were worked 
in large numbers. 

Bonded White 
Servants. — White 
servants, bound for 
a term of years, were also to be found in every colony. 
Many persons convicted of crime in England had been sent 


Redemptioners. 

/T*HERJE ftill remain on board the {kip Aurora 
from Amfterdam, about ig paffcngers, axnonaft 
whom are, 

> Servant girls, gardeners, butchers,' taafons* 
fugar bakers, bread bakers, 1 fhoeroaker, l lilver 
fmith, i leather dreffer, a tobaceonift, 1 paUhry 
cook, and fome a. lirtle acquainted with waiting 
on families, as well as farming and tending horfes, 
&c- They are all in good health. Any per Ton 
defirous of beiog accommodated in the above 
branch es will pleafe fpeedily to apply to 

Captain JOHH BOWLES, 
in the Hream, off Fell's -Point: 
Who ojferj fvt Sale, 

80 Iron-bound Water Calks 
i cheft elegant Fowling Piece?, Angle and dov^ 
lie barrelled 

15,000 Dutch Brick, and 
Sundry fhips Proviflons. 

1 July 14- <fe/v„4t 

Advertisement of Servants for Sale 


loo HISTORY OP THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

to the colonies. The colonists bought the services of these 
unfortunate men and women, and for the length of time 
specified in the contract, usually from four to six years, the 
white servant was as much a slave as the negro. If he 
attempted to run away or committed any misdemeanor, 
his term of service was lengthened. Besides the hardened 
criminals, there were some who had committed only slight 
offenses, while still others were merely political prisoners. 
Then, too, young boys and girls were sometimes kidnaped 
by ruffians in the cities of England, and sold to the 
colonists. 

Redemptioners. — There was yet another class of bond 
servants. Often men who wished to emigrate to America, 
but who were too poor to do so, would voluntarily sell 
themselves into a term of servitude for the cost of their 
passage across the ocean. Servants of this class were called 
‘ ‘ redemptioners. ’ ’ 

Divisions of Society. — One of the most prominent 
features of colonial life was the sharp distinction made be¬ 
tween the different classes. For instance, people sat in 
church according to their social rank. In New England the 
upper classes occupied the front pews; the middle class sat 
next; then came the humbler folk; and finally, the slaves 
and indentured servants in the rear or in the gallery. In 
Virginia the arrangement was often the reverse, the leading 
families occupying pews in the gallery, and everybody else 
having seats in the lower part of the church. In New 
England only persons of the higher class were addressed 
as “Mr.” and “Mrs.”; for the great mass of the people, 
“goodman” and “goodwife” were deemed sufficient. 

Social Life in the South. — It is estimated that as late 
as 1750 four fifths of the plantations of the South were on 
navigable streams. The planter, who received his merchan¬ 
dise and shipped his produce at his own wharf, had as yet 
no need of towns. Therefore, with the exception of Charles¬ 
ton, there was no town of particular importance in the South. 
The planters, living far apart, relieved the quietness of theii 


LIFE IN THE COLONIES 


IOI 


lives by entertaining the passing stranger and by giving 
grand balls which were attended by guests from miles 
around. The planter 
and his family spent the 
winter months in the 
colonial capital, where 
the session of the as¬ 
sembly furnished polit¬ 
ical interest, and* balls, 
tea parties, and the 
governor’s receptions, a 
round of gayety. 

In New England.— 

In New England, where 
homes were close to¬ 
gether and neighbors 
saw one another every 
day, there was no 
occasion for the lavish 
entertaining that was practiced in the South. Besides, the 
descendants of the early Puritans departed from the stem 
customs of their fathers only so far as to permit a few 
amusements. Ladies paid neighborly visits, and while work¬ 
ing at their knitting, discussed the news of the town. A 
family might spend a winter evening at a friend’s fireside, 
'‘chatting, eating nuts and apples, and enjoying a quiet 
time.” If there was work to be done requiring help, the 
neighbors were called in and a holiday was made of the 
occasion. Friends gathered to clear a new field, to build a 
house, or to take part in com-husking or quilting parties. 
After the work they completed the day with a big dinner. 

Nothing showed the influence of Puritanism more strongly 
than the way in which New Englanders observed Sunday, 
or the Sabbath, as they always called it. The Sabbath 
began at six o’clock on Saturday afternoon and continued 
until sunset on Sunday. During that time all labor was 
suspended. No moving about the streets was allowed 






102 


HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


except to attend church. If two or three persons stopped 
on the streets to converse, officers of the law dispersed them. 
The roads and ferries in the country were carefully guarded 
and every passing traveler was arrested. The inns were 



Colonial Home in New England 


closed, so that a traveler might not be entertained. It was 
unlawful even to carry a bundle on the streets. Everybody 
was expected to attend church. The church building was 
seldom heated, but no matter how cold the weather, the 
congregation sat through the sermon that often lasted 
two hours. 

In the Middle Colonies. — The social life of the Middle 
Colonies was similar to that of New England, except that, 
instead of the somber spirit of Puritanism, there was the 
cheerful influence of the Dutch, the Germans, and the Irish. 
In New York among the descendants of the old Dutch 
patroons, there was a form of society more like that of the 
nobility of Europe than was seen anywhere else in America. 
The large estates made these people very wealthy and 
enabled them to live in lordly style. They farmed out 
their land to tenants. They lived in fine houses and had 
a great retinue of servants and slaves. Following the 








LIFE IN THE COLONIES 


103 



fashion of the English nobles, they gave a feast once or 
twice a year to the people living on their estates. 

The Early Printing Press. — There were few newspapers, 
and none of them were dailies. As early as 1639 a printing 
press had been brought to Massachu¬ 
setts. All presses were worked by 
hand, and one of them could hardly 
print in six working days as many 
papers as the modem press can 
print in fifteen minutes. 

Colonial Authors.—The colonists 
usually imported their books. The 
most popular books were the ancient 
classics and the works of standard 
English writers. The colonial period 
in America produced few authors 
of enduring fame. Two stand 
preeminent — Jonathan Edwards of 
Massachusetts and Benjamin 
Franklin of Pennsylvania. Edwards 
wrote mainly on religious subjects, and his great work, 
The Freedom of the Will, has never been excelled in its 
field. The wise sayings of Franklin, which he published in his 
Poor Richard's Almanac, will probably be quoted for all time. 

Modes of Travel. — Travel overland was usually made 
on foot, on horseback, or in a light sulky. The stagecoach, 

a large, cumbersome 
carriage, drawn by four 
or six horses, and capable 
of carrying half a dozen 
passengers, had been 
introduced some years 
before as a means of 
conveyance between a 
few of the larger towns, but was not yet in general use. It 
required three days for the stagecoach to make the ninety 
miles between New York and Philadelphia, If the heavy 


Franklin’s Printing 
Press 

In the custody of the Smith¬ 
sonian Institute 



An Old-time Stagecoach 










104 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

vehicle stuck in the mud, as it often did in wet weather, the 
passengers were expected to alight and assist in pulling it 
out. In New England and the Middle Colonies the family 
traveled in the chaise; in the South the planter had a 
coach and four. 

The roads in the remote interior were mere bridle paths, 
and travel, when not on foot, was usually on horseback, 
the wife and children being seated on a pillion behind the 
rider. On the occasion of a wedding, the bride rode to 
the church on a pillion behind her father and rode away 
on a pillion behind her husband. In New England, the 
farmer carried his produce to town on sleds in the winter 



Carrying Tobacco to the Wharf in Virginia 


and on ox carts in summer. In Virginia, the man who 
lived away from a navigable stream hitched his mule or 
ox to a hogshead of tobacco, through which an axle had 
been run, and rolled it to the nearest wharf. 

The Western Country. — The region between the Alle¬ 
ghany Mountains and the Mississippi River was still (1763) 
a vast wilderness, broken only by a few Small settlements 
a great distance apart, with here and there an isolated 
fort. As the small number of Frenchmen in this terri¬ 
tory had come by way of Canada or the Mississippi, their 
settlements were at points remote from the English colonies. 
The country between was uninhabited by the white 
man. The chief settlements were Detroit (Michigan), 
Vincennes (Indiana), and Kaskaskia (Illinois). There was 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES 


105 

not a settlement within the present limits of Ohio, Ken¬ 
tucky, or Tennessee. The British government, fearing that 
the colonies, if allowed to expand beyond the mountains, 
might become too strong to be controlled, determined to 
abandon the entire western country to the Indians. In 
1763 the king issued a proclamation forbidding colonists 
to settle beyond a line drawn around the head waters of all 
rivers emptying into the Atlantic. This act meant that the 
colonies were to be confined to the narrow strip between 



A View of Detroit in 1705 
After an old print 


the Alleghanies and the ocean. Regardless of the royal 
decree, the restless population pushed into the West. 

Settlement of Tennessee. — In 1769, William Bean of 
North Carolina found his way across the mountains and 
made his home near the Watauga River within the present 
limits of Tennessee. He was soon followed by James 
Robertson and a number of other emigrants from North 
Carolina. Numerous settlements sprang up near the 
Watauga. The settlers were unwilling to acknowledge 
allegiance to the royal authority in North Carolina, so they 
formed a government of their own in 1772, calling it the 
“Watauga Association.” After North Carolina organized 
a government independent of Great Britain, the state 












io6 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


abolished the association in 1778, and incorporated the 
territory into Washington County. From this territory 
came the State of Tennessee. 

Settlement of Kentucky. — In the same year that William 
Bean moved into Tennessee, Daniel Boone, the most famous 

of all frontiersmen, left his 
home in North Carolina and 
began to explore the lands of 
Kentucky. In 1774, James 
Harrod founded Harrodsburg, 
the first town in Kentucky. 
Indians made war on the first 
settlers; but the defeat of the 
Shawnees, the leading tribe, 
caused all the other tribes to 
sue for peace. In 1775, the 
settlers, calling their country 
“ Transylvania, ” organized a 
government; but as the settle¬ 
ments were within the limits of Virginia, that state, in 1776, 
formed them into the County of Kentucky. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Name the thirteen original English colonies. Give an idea of 
their growth up to 1763. Mention some of the nationalities, besides 
the English, that were prominent in the settling of the English colonies. 

2. Describe the colonial assembly. What three classes or kinds of 
colonies were there? Name those which belonged to each class in 1763. 

3. Why and where were negro slaves most numerous? What were 
bonded white servants? Redemptioners? How would you have 
detected the social classes in the colonies? 

4. Why were there so many more cities or towns in the northern 
and middle colonies than in the South? Contrast entertainments in 
Virginia and Massachusetts. Describe the New England Sabbath. 
What influences modified the English customs in the middle colonies? 
What books and papers would you have found in a colonial book store? 
Picture the travel in the various parts of this country in 1763. 

5. Describe the western country. Why did the British king issue 
the Proclamation of 1763? What inducements were there to influence 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES 


107 


the English colonial pioneers to ignore the Proclamation. Give the 
history of the Watauga Association. Give an account of the work of 
Boone and his followers in opening up Kentucky for settlement. 

Project Exercises 

Name modes of travel familiar in all parts of the United States 
to-day that were absolutely unknown in the thirteen English colonies 
in 1763. 

Important Dates: 

1769. Settlement of Tennessee. 

1774. Settlement of Kentucky. 



A Post-Rides 



CHAPTER IX 


DISSENSION BETWEEN THE COLONIES AND THE 
MOTHER COUNTRY 

British Colonial Policy. — As long as the colonies were 
young and feeble, the government of England neglected them. 
The early colonists had planted their settlements without 
help from the home government, and without help they had 
driven back the Indians. Through their own efforts they 
prospered, and built up trade with many parts of the world, 
yet hardly had they been able to do so before parliament 
made laws which were intended to give English merchants 
control of the colonial trade. 

The laws that sought to control the trade of America were 
known as the Acts of Navigation and Trade. The first of 
these acts was passed in 1651 (see page 67). Others, 
making the laws stricter, were passed from time to time. 
The Acts of Navigation and Trade forbade the colonies to 
sell to other countries such products as Great Britain needed, 
or to buy certain products from other countries except 
through Great Britain. They forbade the colonists to 
manufacture many articles for themselves. If these laws 
had been enforced, they would have placed the colonists at the 
mercy of British merchants, for the price of nearly every¬ 
thing the colonists bought or sold would have been fixed in 
London. 

The Navigation Laws not Enforced. — The commercial 
policy of Great Britain agreed with the view held by all 
nations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, that 
the trade and manufactures of colonies should be controlled 
in the interest of the mother country. Few statesmen of 
Europe then believed this system wrong. The Americans 
themselves considered it legal, though they did not like the 
system because they naturally wished to trade where they 

108 


THE COLONIES AND THE MOTHER COUNTRY 109 

could do so to the best advantage. Still, the efforts to 
enforce the navigation laws caused much irritation in the 
colonies and would have led to serious trouble sooner if it 
had not been easy for the colonists to evade the laws. The 
long series of wars in which Great Britain was engaged kept 
her too busy to enforce them rigidly. The colonists carried 
on, in violation of the laws, a large commerce, not only be¬ 
tween one colony and another, but also with the outside world. 
This trade was “smuggling,” and a person engaged in it 
could be punished in the courts; but as public opinion did 
not uphold the laws, many persons, especially New Eng¬ 
landers, became “smugglers” and made great fortunes. 

The Colonial Government. — The colonists levied all 
taxes upon themselves through assemblies of their own 
choosing. In fact, the colonists were allowed to manage 
all local affairs through their assemblies. Yet, there was 
dissatisfaction, for parliament or king at times interfered. 
The king had the right to veto laws passed by most of the 
colonies; and it sometimes happened that he vetoed a law, 
not for the good of the colony, but because persons in England 
or his officials in America wished it vetoed. 

The governors and other officials sent over to the colonies 
were often unfit for the work. Some of them were dishonest, 
others were inefficient. Many of them were bent on forcing 
upon the colonies the objectionable measures of the king 
and parliament. The colonists, however, could usually 
hold an official in check, for the colonial assembly paid all 
salaries, and it would withhold the salary of an official unless 
he acted to its liking. 

British Policy More Liberal than that of Other Nations. — 

In studying the colonial policy of Great Britain in the seven¬ 
teenth and eighteenth centuries, it should not be forgotten 
that Great Britain was much more generous in her treatment 
of her colonies than any other nation. The autocratic 
monarchs of France and Spain ground down their colonists 
with almost unbearable taxes and allowed them no self- 
government whatsoever. In a French or Spanish colony 


110 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

the decree of the king, or of the official whom he appointed, 
was the law. Even in her navigation laws Great Britain 
was more just. When laws were passed by Great Britain 
to control a colonial trade, other laws were passed to build 
up that trade. For instance, tobacco grown in her colonies 
could be shipped only to Great Britain, yet the British 
people were allowed to buy no tobacco except such as came 
from British colonies. 

The English people had long enjoyed more liberty than 
Other peoples of Europe. Englishmen who came to Amer¬ 
ica brought with them the love of liberty that they had 
inherited in the old country. Allowed to manage their own 
affairs the English colonists became, in time, so well trained 

111 self-government that they became self-reliant. They 
thought themselves the proper judges of the laws that were 
best suited to their condition, and resented interference from 
the outside, even though it came from the mother country. 
In those days it was regarded a serious offence to speak 
against the king or parliament, but as the colonists grew 
stronger they grew bolder. They were still loyal to the mother 
country and proud of being Englishmen; yet they did not 
hesitate to denounce acts of the royal government that they 
considered tyranny. 

“ Writs of Assistance.” — In an attempt to enforce against 
the smugglers the laws of navigation and trade, courts had 
been set up in which those accused of violating the law were 
tried by judges without juries. If the accused were found 
guilty, their goods were forfeited and sold, and as the officers 
of the court shared in the proceeds of the sales, dishonest 
officials made many wrongful seizures. To give the court 
even greater power, “ writs of assistance ” were issued. 
These writs gave to officers the right to search the home of 
any one merely suspected of violating the lav/, and to com¬ 
pel citizens to assist in the search'. The greatest indignation 
was aroused in the colonies engaged in commerce, for it was 
in these colonies that the writs were chiefly used. Boston 
took the lead in the opposition. In 1761 James Otis, of that 


THE COLONIES AND THE MOTHER COUNTRY hi 


town, appearing in court to argue against the issuing of the 
writs, asserted that “ no act of parliament can establish such 
a writ ” and that “ an act of parliament against the Con¬ 
stitution is void.” The effect of Otis’s bold speech reached 
the remotest colony and set the people to thinking that 
they should assert their rights by force, if necessary. 

An Unwise King. — George III, who ascended the throne 
of Great Britain in 1760, was not a wise king. He soon 
showed that he intended to 
govern the colonies without 
much regard to their wishes. 

Virginia and South Carolina, 
alarmed at the rapid increase 
of slaves, in 1761 passed acts 
to prevent bringing into those 
colonies more negroes from 
Africa; but George III vetoed 
the acts as many persons in 
England were growing rich 
from the slave trade. 

In the same year George III 
appointed a chief justice for 
New York who was to hold office as long as it pleased the 
king, instead of as long as he performed his duties to the 
satisfaction of the colony. The people of New York did 
not wish to have a judge who was not responsible to them; 
so they refused to pay a salary to the chief justice. The 
king thereupon paid the salary and ordered that thereafter 
all judges throughout the colonies should hold office as long 
as the king desired. This action of the king placed the 
judges in a position where they could do as they pleased, 
and the colonies would be powerless to remove them. 

The “ Parson’s Cause.” — In Virginia, as in most of the 
colonies, the colonial government had charge of the finances 
of the church. The clergy asserted that, by an act of the 
Virginia assembly fixing their salaries, they had been treated 
unfairly. They appealed to George III, who vetoed the act. 



King George III 


112 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


A clergyman then brought suit for the salary which he claimed 
was due him under the old law. At the trial, in 1763, the 
people were represented by Patrick Henry, a country lawyer. 
In a speech of fiery eloquence he declared that a king who 

vetoes so wise a law “ degener¬ 
ates into a tyrant and forfeits 
all right to obedience.” On 
account of the king’s veto, the 
jury were compelled to return 
a verdict in favor of the 
clergyman; yet, such was their 
sympathy with the wishes of 
the people in passing the 
vetoed law, that they gave 
him only a penny damages. 
This case became famous as 
the “Parson’s cause” and 
stirred up much feeling in 
the colonies against the king. 

The Question of Taxing America. — Though the colonists 
had claimed from the first that only assemblies of their 
own choosing could tax them, 1 and though the British govern¬ 
ment had allowed all taxes to be levied by the colonial 
assemblies, yet the mother country had never given up her 
claim to tax the colonies whenever she saw fit. On the con¬ 
trary, most British statesmen had long favored parliament’s 
taxing the colonies to meet the expense of the colonial gov¬ 
ernments, for it*seldom happened that an assembly was 
willing to levy a tax as large as the home government or its 
officials in America desired. <1 

With the close of the French and Indian War in 1763 the 
question of taxing the colonies came to a head in parliament. 
The wars between Great Britain and her allies, on one side, 
and France and her allies, on the other, which lasted with 

1 It will be remembered that the first assembly in America, meeting 
in Jamestown in 1619, forbade the governor from laying taxes without 
its consent (see page 35). 



Patrick Henry 



THE COLONIES AND THE MOTHER COUNTRY 113 

intermissions for nearly three quarters of a century, left 
Great Britain the foremost of nations and the leading 
colonial power. In America, Great Britain had been given 
all Canada and Florida and the undisputed possession of the 
country between the Alleghany Mountains and the Mis¬ 
sissippi River. But the many wars had left Great Britain 
with an almost empty treasury and a heavy debt. 

George III and his ministers, holding that the taxpayers 
in Great Britain should not be further burdened with the 
expense of governing and defending the vast territories in 
America, announced that parliament would be asked to levy 
a tax upon the colonies to raise the money needed. They as¬ 
serted that the wars that had left the mother country heavily 
in debt had been waged for the benefit of the colonists, and 
that, therefore, the colonists should not object to a tax levied 
upon them solely for the support of the colonial governments. 

Position of the Colonists. — But the colonists objected 
vigorously.. They based their objections on the following 
grounds: A body, such as a parliament, or a congress, or an 
assembly, when elected by the people, represents those who 
elect it and carries out their wishes. Taxes levied by such a 
body are, therefore, levied with the consent of the people. 
When the taxing body is not elected by the people taxed, 
they do not control it and are powerless to prevent it from 
levying any taxes it pleases and deciding how they should 
be spent. Experience has shown that taxes imposed upon 
a people who have no control over the taxing power are apt- 
to be unjust. Moreover, when a people are taxed without 
their consent they cannot have self-government, for it is 
only through control of the revenues that they control their 
government. Consequently the colonists would be in danger 
of losing their liberties, if parliament, which they had no 
voice in electing, should tax them. 

Englishmen had for many centuries enjoyed the right of 
deciding what taxes should be imposed upon them. Back 
in the Middle Ages, King John, who then ruled over England, 
was forced to sign the Magna Carta, a paper that guaranteed 


114 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

them this right. The Bill of Rights, passed by parliament 
in 1689, confirmed it. The colonists claimed that, though 
they had left the old country, they were still Englishmen 
and, therefore, had the same rights as the Englishmen who 
had remained at home. 

Parliament, representing the people in England, levied 
taxes upon them, but parliament sitting three thousand 
miles away and having in it no one to represent America, 
could not know what was best for the colonies; therefore, 
the colonists claimed that their colonial assemblies took the 
place of parliament in the management of their local affairs. 
As the Englishmen at home held it as their most cherished 
right that they could not be taxed except through their 
parliament, so the Englishmen in America held it as their 
most cherished right that they could not be taxed except 
through their assemblies. 

Answer of the Colonists. — In protesting against par¬ 
liament’s taxing them, the colonists professed loyalty to 
king and mother country; they declared that they were 
ready to meet all rightful expenses through their own as¬ 
semblies, but were unwilling that parliament, in which they 
were not represented, should tax them. 1 

Taxing America Decided Upon. — Despite the protests 
of America the British government decided to tax the colonies 
without their consent. The determination not to submit 
to this injustice led the colonies to declare themselves in¬ 
dependent of Great Britain and to form for themselves the 
United States of America. It will therefore be well to 
consider the political conditions then existing in England; 
for, otherwise, it will be difficult to understand how Great 
Britain came to pursue such an unwise course that caused 
the loss of her richest and most populous colonies. 

1 In answer to the claim that Great Britain had become burdened 
with debt through wars waged for the protection of the colonies, the 
Americans pointed out that the wars had been waged more for the 
benefit of the commerce of Great Britain, and that, besides, the colonies 
had already contributed more than their share of the expense. 


THE COLONIES AND THE MOTHER COUNTRY 115 

Parliament did not Represent the English People. — The 

‘'Revolution of 1688,” which had rid England of James II 
and placed William and Mary on the throne, made parlia¬ 
ment superior to the king (see page 79). From that time, 
the House of Commons, the branch of parliament whose 
members are chosen by election, held the governing power. 
This system is a rule of the people and is the system under 
which Great Britain is governed to-day; but the rule of the 
people at the time of the American Revolution was more 
seeming than real, for the House of Commons itself needed 
reforming. The districts trat elected the members of the 
House of Commons were, with few exceptions, the ones that 
did so in the days of Queen Elizabeth. In the two hundred 
years that had elapsed population had shifted. Many 
new cities, populous and wealthy, had arisen, and some of 
the older towns had dwindled to a mere handful of people. 
Yet the new cities elected no members of the House of 
Commons, while the decayed towns elected the same num¬ 
ber of members they had always done. One of the “ rot¬ 
ten boroughs,” as the decayed towns were called, had not 
a single inhabitant, but it had two representatives in the 
House of Commons who were selected by the owner of 
the land upon which the village once stood. Besides, the 
law allowed only about one man in nine in England to 
vote for members of parliament, and, consequently, even in 
the more populous districts in which voting was allowed, the 
voters were few. 1 

Political standards among public officials were low. 
Bribery was then considered a proper means for controlling 
public affairs; and, as there were so few voters, bribery was 
made easy. Members of parliament who had bought their 
election themselves took bribes. The great mass of people, 
without the voting power, were helpless. 

1 Great Britain, though a monarchy in form, is now one of the most 
democratic countries of the world. It was not until 1832, however, 
that Great Britain began a series of reforms that made the House of 
Commons properly representative of the people, 


II 6 HISTORY OP THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

George III and his “Friends.” — George III knew that 
it would be impossible to do without parliament altogether, 
as previous kings had done, for Great Britain had made too 
much progress in self-government. Instead, he took ad¬ 
vantage of the corruption that was poisoning public life. 
He bribed members of parliament. To some he gave money; 
to others titles, and to others lucrative positions. In this 
way he built up in parliament a party, known as the “ king’s 
friends,” whose only political principle was to do whatever 
the king asked. It was not the corrupt politicians alone 
who favored taxing America, for most statesmen and many 
eminent lawyers thought the policy right (see page 112.) 
It was, however, the corrupt condition of parliament that 
made it possible for the king and his “ friends ” to push 
forward in a headlong course that threw the colonies into 
revolt. Least of all were the people of England responsible. 


Topics and Questions 

1. When did the British government begin to seek the control of 
the commerce of the colonies? How did it seek to control their com¬ 
merce? Were the Acts of Navigation and Trade enforced? What did 
public opinion have to do with smuggling in those days? What is the 
attitude of society to-day toward smuggling? 

2. How had colonial taxes always been levied? Why was there 
dissatisfaction in the colonies regarding the colonial government? 
How were officials held in check? 

3. Was Great Britain more generous than other nations in her treat¬ 
ment of colonies? Give reasons for your opinion. What effect did 
the management of their local affairs have upon the colonists? Were 
the British colonists in America loyal to the mother country? Were 
they proud of their English blood? 

4. Define writ of assistance and explain why an Englishman would 
object to one. What colonists openly led the opposition to such writs? 

5. What acts of the king aroused Virginia, South Carolina, and New 
York to dissatisfaction and alarm for their welfare? Why did the 
“Parson’s cause” have vital interest for every colonist in Virginia 
and in all the colonies? 

6. State the position of most British statesmen on the question of 
parliament’s taxing the colonies. Why did Great Britain seek to make 
her American colonies “self-supporting”? 


THE COLONIES AND THE MOTHER COUNTRY 117 

7. On just what grounds did the colonists object to being taxed by 
parliament? What was the answer of the colonists to the proposal 
that parliament should tax them? How did the British government 
receive the protests of the colonies? 

8. Describe the political conditions in England and explain why 
parliament did not represent the people. What is meant by 44 George III 
and his friends ” ? 


Project Exercises 

1. Describe how the colonies received military aid from the British 
government and state whether you think the fear of British arms by 
European nations made the colonies more secure from Dutch, Spanish, 
or French attack in America. 

2. Point out how parliament, which did not in the eighteenth century 
represent the English people, became later a democratic body. 

3. Find in the Constitution of the United States a provision that 
secures to each state a fair representation in Congress. 


CHAPTER X 

EVENTS LEADING TO THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 


The Stamp Act. — In 1765 parliament passed the Stamp 
Act. This act required that all legal papers drawn up 
in the colonies, such as wills, deeds, mortgages, marriage 
licenses, etc., should be written on stamped paper. If 
they were not written on such paper, they were to be legally 
worthless. Newspapers also must bear 
the stamp, and a tax was placed on 
advertisements. The revenue to be 
raised from the sale of the stamps was 
to be used for supporting the British 
army in America. 

By the Stamp Act the colonies were 
stirred as they had never been before. 
“Taxation without representation is 
tyranny” became the watchword of 
A Stamp of 1765 America. Although the government had 
selected a tax that would fall least 
heavily upon the people, and although the revenue would 
be spent in America, the colonists objected to the tax from 
principle. Once admit that Americans might be taxed 
without their consent, they might be so taxed for purposes 
without end. The act was earnestly discussed by persons 
in every walk of life. It was openly denounced and the 
determination that it should not be enforced was publicly 
proclaimed. Societies, called “Sons of Liberty,” were 
formed for the purpose of resistance, and many riots oc¬ 
curred. Stamp distributors were burned in effigy and their 
property was pillaged, while many of the stamps were 
destroyed. 

Merchants entered into a compact not to buy goods 
from England until the tax was removed. This was known 

118 



EVENTS LEADING TO THE REVOLUTION 


119 

as the “Non-importation Agreement,” and was begun in 
New York. Homespun clothes were commonly worn, and 
the use of “home-made” articles of all kinds became the 
fashion. 

Virginia, Massachusetts, and the Carolinas. — Virginia 
was the first colony to act. Its assembly declared in reso¬ 
lutions introduced by Patrick Henry 1 that Virginians had 
the same rights as Englishmen — that it was their right to 
be taxed only with their consent. The resolutions found 



Patrick Henry in the Virginia Assembly 


hearty response throughout the country. “Virginia rang 
the alarm bell for the continent.” 

The Massachusetts assembly invited the other colonies 
to join in an American Congress. The movement made 
slow progress until South Carolina accepted the invitation. 
As Christopher Gadsden, an eminent patriot of that colony, 
said, “Had it not been for South Carolina, no Congress 
would then have happened.” 

' In North Carolina the governor asked what the assembly 

1 In his speech on the resolutions Henry said, “Tarquin and Caesar 
had each his Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and George III” — in¬ 
terrupted here by the presiding officer and some of the members crying 
“Treason! treason!!” he paused and added — “may profit by their 
example. If this be treason make the most of it/” 









120 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


would do about the act. The speaker, John Ashe, replied, 
‘‘We will resist its execution to the death,” and the governor 
broke up the assembly. 

The Stamp Act Congress. — The Congress met in New 
York in October, 1765. Most of the colonies were repre¬ 
sented. Strong memorials were addressed to the king and. 
parliament, claiming for the colonists, among other rights, 
the right of trial by jury in all cases, and the right to have 
taxes imposed only through colonial assemblies. The me- 



SlGNATURES TO THE PETITION SENT BY THE COLONISTS TO 
King George III 

The rejection of which led to the Revolution. 

Reduced facsimile of original in the British Public 
Record Office, London 

morials declared the desire of the colonies to continue a 
part of the British empire and expressed strong attachment 
for the king. 

The morning of November 1, 1765, the day for the act to 
go into effect, was everywhere ushered in as a day of mourn¬ 
ing. Bells were tolled minute guns were fired, and flags 
were suspended at half mast. But the day was soon changed 
into one of rejoicing, for the law could not be enforced. 
Not a stamp distributor could be found, for all had been 
compelled to resign. Business affected by the tax was 





EVENTS LEADING TO THE REVOLUTION 


121 


discontinued or else was transacted without the use of the 
hated stamps. 

The Stamp Act Repealed. — Many people in England 
sympathized with the colonists. Merchants of London 
and other cities, whose trade was injured by the refusal of 
the colonists to have business dealings with England, peti¬ 
tioned parliament for the repeal of the Stamp Act. The 
opposition of the American people and the protest of the 
English merchants had their effect. Parliament repealed the 
law in the spring of 1766, but at the same time declared its 
right to tax America. In the House of Commons, those 



William Pitt Edmund Burke 


who favored the repeal were led by William Pitt and 
Edmund Burke, and in the House of Lords by Lord 
Camden. 

The repeal was celebrated in England by the friends of 
the colonists. News of the repeal was greeted in America 
with great rejoicing, with bonfires, processions, and speech¬ 
making. The declaration of parliament of its right to tax 
America was overlooked, and the affection of the colonies, 
which had been severely strained, once more turned for a 
time to the mother country. 

The “ Townshend Acts.”—The joy over the repeal of the 
Stamp Act was short-lived, for the British government had 


122 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

no intention of giving up the policy of taxing America for 
revenue. The king and his “ friends’ ’ misunderstood the 
temper of the American people. Officials sent over to govern 
the colonies desired parliament to levy taxes so that from 
the money thus raised they might be paid salaries that the 
colonial assemblies could not interfere with. 

In the year following the repeal of the Stamp Act (1767) 
parliament passed a series of acts for the more rigid govern- 
ment of the colonies. These acts are known as the “Town- 
shend Acts,” because they were proposed by Charles 
Townshend, a member of parliament. Among them was 
an act levying taxes upon glass, paper, lead, painters’ colors, 
and tea imported into the colonies. The purpose of these 
taxes threatened the liberties of the people even more than 
the purpose of the Stamp Act, for the revenue was to be 
used not only for the support of the army in America, but 

also for the support of all the 
civil officials. The colonists 
faced the double danger of hav¬ 
ing forced upon them a large 
army that they did not need and 
a body of officeholders over 
whom they would have no 
control. They determined to 
defeat the purpose of the law by 
not using the articles which were 
taxed, and they renewed the old 
agreement not to import any¬ 
thing from England. The acts 
were denounced by the pulpit, 
the press, and the people. 

Action of Massachusetts. — 
The assembly of Massachusetts, 
guided by the noble patriot, Samuel Adams, sent to the 
king resolutions protesting against the “Townshend Acts.” 
The resolutions asserted that Americans did not aim at 
Independence. At the same time the Massachusetts assembly 



Samuel Adams 

After the portrait by Copley in 
Boston Museum of Fine Arts 


EVENTS LEADING TO THE REVOLUTION 


123 


sent to the assembly of every other colony a circular letter 
asking that all join in an effort to secure the repeal of 
the acts. The resolutions and circular letter gave great 
offence to the king. It was ordered that the assembly 
be dissolved unless its action was rescinded immediately. 
Instructions were also given that assemblies of other colonies 
indorsing the circular letter should be dissolved. The 
assembly' of Massachusetts refused to rescind, whereupon 
the governor dissolved it. Every assembly showed approval 
of the letter; and the assemblies of Maryland, South Caro¬ 
lina, and Georgia were dissolved for indorsing it. When 
the Virginia assembly adopted resolutions protesting against 
the arbitrary course of Great Britain, it was treated in the 
same manner. 

The Tension Increases. — In 1769 parliament requested 
the king to have all persons in America charged with oppo¬ 
sition to the laws arrested and taken to England to be tried 
there for treason. Probably no one thing incensed the 
colonies more than this. 

The growing friction between the colonists and the royal 
authorities was shown in the serious riots that occurred, in 
the years 1770 and 1771, in widely separated localities. 
Early in 1770, a riot broke out in New York when British 
soldiers cut down a liberty pole which the people had erected. 
The riot lasted two days. One citizen was killed and others 
were wounded. 

Soon afterwards blood was shed in Boston. The troops 
there had been giving considerable trouble, and the feeling 
against them was bitter. A quarrel arose between a party 
of soldiers and some of the inhabitants. The soldiers 
discharged their muskets, killing five persons and wounding 
six. The whole town was aroused, and the people in their 
indignation compelled the governor to remove the troops to 
the fort in the harbor. The “Boston Massacre,” as it was 
called, sent a thrill of horror over the country. 

The Battle of Alamance. — For many years the settlers 
in the uplands of North Carolina had suffered from 


124 . HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATE? 

exorbitant taxes and costly and unjust lawsuits, which 
in many cases caused the loss of property. Appeals to 
the governor having brought no relief, a number of settlers* 
calling themselves “regulators,” made preparation to defend 

their rights by force. 
The governor with 
more than a 
thousand militia 
marched to arrest 
the leaders. He 
met the “regula¬ 
tors,” many of 
whom were un¬ 
armed, near the 
Alamance River p 
and there (1771) a 
battle was fcughto 
Of course the 
victory was with 
the governor and 
his troops. Twenty 
“regulators” and 
nine soldiers were 
killed. Seven lead¬ 
ers of the “regula¬ 
tors” who were 
captured were 
hanged as outlaws 
Monument on Alamance Battle Ground by order of the 

governor. 

Some Historic “Tea Parties.” — Meanwhile parliament 
removed the tax from all the commodities named in the 
Townshend Acts, except tea; but this partial repeal did not 
satisfy the colonists. Small as the tax on tea was, the colo¬ 
nists objected to it because they were contending for a great 
principle. They would have none of the tea. 

When three ships with cargoes of tea arrived in Boston 







EVENTS LEADING TO THE REVOLUTION . 


125 


harbor, a party of men disguised as Indians boarded them 
on a night in December, 1773, and threw the tea overboard. 
The affair is known as the “Boston Tea Party.” In Phila¬ 
delphia and New York the people refused to allow the tea 
to be landed, and drove the ships away. In Charleston 
some of the tea was thrown into the harbor, while some was 
stored and afterward sold for the benefit of the colony. 
Later, when a vessel laden with tea arrived at Annapolis, 
the citizens, in the daytime and without disguise, compelled 



Charleston in 1780 
After a drawing by Leitch 


the owner of the vessel and the importers of the tea to 
bum the ship with its entire cargo. 

The “Five Intolerable Acts.” — Parliament, already 
greatly displeased with the colonies for their continued 
resistance to the laws, was so angered by the destruction of 
the tea, that it passed in 1774 the following laws, which on 
account of their severity and injustice were called by the 
colonists the “Five Intolerable Acts”: (1) The port of 
Boston was closed — no ships, except those carrying food, 
could enter or leave the harbor, which meant ruin to the 
business of the town; (2) The charter of Massachusetts 
was changed so as to deprive the people of nearly all rights 
and liberties; (3) All magistrates, revenue officers, and 
soldiers, indicted in Massachusetts for murder and other 














p26 HJSTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATE'S 

capital crimes, were to be tried in Nova Scotia or Great 
Britain; (4) The quartering of troops in the colonies was 
legalized; (5) The country lying between the Ohio River 
and the Great Lakes 1 was attached to the province of 
Quebec. 

Other Colonies Send Aid to Massachusetts. — It will be 
noted that three of the laws affected Massachusetts alone 

The severe punishment 
directed toward Massa¬ 
chusetts was due to the fact 
that the course of that colony 
had become particularly 
distasteful to the British 
government. The effect of 
the laws was to draw the 
people closer together, for it 
was realized that the colonies 
must make common cause to 
protect the rights of America. 
Nearly all the colonies urged 
Massachusetts to stand firm 
against the laws and assured 
her of their support. In order 
that the people of Boston 
might not suffer from having 
their port closed immedi¬ 
ate measures were taken for 
their relief. Very soon rice, 
rye, flour, peas, cattle, sheep* 
oil, fish, and money were 
poured into the town from all parts of the country. The 
day the port bill went into effect was observed in Philadelphia 
as a day of mourning, and in Virginia as a day of fasting 
and prayer. 

1 This territory, upon which several of the colonies had claims, now 
comprises the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, 
and a part of Minnesota. 



ANNO DECIMO qjUARTO 

Georgii III. Regis. 


CAP. XIX. 

/An Aft to difcontinue, in luch Manner, and for 
luch. Time as are therein mentioned, tho 
landing and di/charging, lading or/hipping; 
of Goods, Wares, and Merchandi/e, at the 
Town, and within the Harbour, ofi lojlori, in 
the Province of Majfachufa* Bay, in North 
jima-ktu 

bangetoujj flftmtnefton* 
tmO SnrutrectTOiui bant been fomenttb 
ffliT) raifeb in. tlje CTouan ot Bo ft on, in 
tbe Ipionince of MaRachuieTs Bay. in 
New England, by bioer* ill affirtteb #>er» 
to tbe^nbberfion of $1$ 

Cotjetnmmt, 8nb to (be utter ©efttuftion of tbe jtubiicb 
IPffttt, mib 500b flDibrt of tbe Cub (Town; in tobicji 
CTornmotions anb 3 ofu»reflitfiuf certain valuable Cargoes 
of Ceas. being: tbe property of t$e Eaft India.Company, 
•rib on 28 estb attain Tlefttia lying: \ntlbin tbe o) 
4 60 * tyarbo*® 

First Page of the Boston 
Port Bill 
Reduced facsimile 



EVENTS LEADING TO THE REVOLUTION 127 

Virginia Leads to Union; First Continental Congress. —- 

A step had already been taken which led to the union of the 
colonies. At the instance of Virginia, intercolonial com¬ 
mittees of correspondence had been established, through 
which the colonies consulted one another concerning the 

A general congress was 
suggested, and the prop¬ 
osition gained immedi¬ 
ate favor. The Congress 
met at Philadelphia in 
September, 1774. It 
made formal complaint 
of the grievances suffered 
by the colonists since the 
accession of George IIL 
Then the rights of the 
colonists were fully set 
forth. A great majority 
of the people were still 
loyal; Congress peti¬ 
tioned the king to restore 
the former conditions 
under which the mother 
country and the colonists 
had lived agreeably 
together as one nation. 
Before adjourning Congress decided to meet again in May 
of the following year. 

War near at Hand. — Massachusetts remained firm, 
and refused to allow the act violating her charter to have 
effect (see page 125.) Serious disturbances occurred in 
some of the colonies, and everywhere patriots prepared 
to defend their country. Committees of safety were ap¬ 
pointed, the militia was strengthened and constantly drilled, 
and companies of “minute-men,” composed of men ready 
to shoulder their muskets at a moment’s notice, were organ¬ 
ized. Arms and ammunition were collected and secreted. 


danger to their common welfare. 



Carpenters’ Hall, Philadelphia, 1774 
Where the First Continental Congress met 




















128 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Meanwhile Great Britain declared Massachusetts in 
rebellion, and prepared to reduce the colony to obedience 
by force. General Gage was made military governor of 
the colony. The troops in Boston were increased, and a 
strong fleet was stationed in the harbor. Everyone felt that 
an armed conflict might come at any time. 

Whigs and Tories. — The colonists, who opposed the 
policy of Great Britain, did not desire the independence 
of America; yet the continued injustice of that policy had 
brought them to the point where they were willing, if neces¬ 
sary, to meet force with force in the defense of the right of 
self-government. As in England there were those who did 
not think that parliament should tax the colonists without 
their consent, so in America there were those who sided with 
the British government. These Americans did not, as a 
rule, approve of the government’s course. They preferred 
to continue to thwart its measures by peaceable methods, 
since they believed that an armed conflict would end in the 
independence of America; and they thought it unwise to 
change from the stable government of Great Britain to an 
untried government of the colonies that might never be 
strong enough to preserve law and order. 

The political party in England that opposed the king’s 
policy was called “Whig” and the party that approved of 
his policy was called “Tory.” These names crossed the 
Atlantic. Americans who were willing to go to war if 
necessary called themselves “Whigs,” and those of their 
countrymen who disapproved of such a course, they called 
“Tories.” Every colony contained a number of Tories, 
many of whom subsequently took up arms on the side of the 
mother country. Some of the Tories in America were men 
of culture and wealth. Since the people of both countries 
were Englishmen living under one government, and since 
the sentiment in both countries was divided, the war that 
followed may be regarded as of the nature of a civil war. 

The Cause. — The fact that America was not united 
makes only brighter the patriotism of those who, through 


EVENTS LEADING TO THE REVOLUTION 


129 


the stress of war and the gloom of reverses, successfully 
defended a cause which at the time scarcely a nation of the 
world held in high respect, but a cause of which most coun¬ 
tries of the civilized world to-day are champions — the 
cause of self-government. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Parliament, having decided to tax the colonies, passed the Stamp 
Act in 1765. Describe the Stamp Act and the manner in which the 
news of its passage was received in America. Define Sons of Liberty, 
m_in-importation agreement, and Virginia Resolutions. Give the story 
of the action of Massachusetts, South Carolina, and North Carolina in 
regard to the Stamp Act. 

2. What demands did the Stamp Act Congress make? Were the 
colonists then seeking independence? Why did the Stamp Act fail? 
What members of parliament championed the American cause? 

3. What was the principal act of the “Townshend Acts”? For 
what reasons did the colonists protest against these acts? Describe 
the action of Massachusetts. Did that colony stand alone in her at¬ 
titude and action? What was the king’s response to the protests of 
Massachusetts and other colonies? 

4. Give the details of the story of bloodshed in New York and 
Boston in 1770. What led to the battle of Alamance and what re¬ 
sulted? Why did Boston have her “tea party” in 1773? Who fol¬ 
lowed her example? 

5. State definitely the contents of the Five Intolerable Acts. Show 
how the colonies proved good neighbors and sisters to Massachusetts, 
How had the colonists known of intercolonial affairs and conditions? 
What was the object of the First Continental Congress? Of com¬ 
mittees of safety? Of minute men? What was Great Britain’s answer 
fco preparations for war in America? 

Project Exercises 

1. Give arguments (a) for the Stamp Act from the British parlia. 
ment’s point of view; ( b ) against the Stamp Act from any colonist’s 
point of view. Was parliament defeated or only temporarily checked 
in its plans by the repeal of the Stamp Act? 

2. Were the colonists united in feeling and ideas in the period be¬ 
tween 1763 and 1775? Prove your decision by a definite illustration. 
Was it easy to decide whether to be a patriot or a loyalist? 

3. Why was the Revolution a contest for self-government? 

Important Date: 

1765. Passage of the Stamp Act. 


CHAPTER XI 

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

Battle of Lexington. — General Gage had received from 
England instructions to arrest certain leaders of the oppo¬ 
sition to the royal government. It was especially desired 
that Samuel Adams and John Hancock, patriots of Mas¬ 
sachusetts, who were among the foremost of the leaders, 
should be taken. They were at Lexington, ten miles from 
Boston. Gage planned to arrest them and also to seize 
the military supplies that the Americans had collected at 
Concord, a few miles beyond Lexington. 

To accomplish this double purpose, he sent out at night, 
from Boston, a body of soldiers. The movement, intended 
to be secret, was promptly detected. 1 The people along 
the route were aroused, and Adams and Hancock escaped. 
An advance detachment of British troops, under command 
of Major Pitcairn, reached Lexington about daybreak on 
April 19, 1775, and found a few minute-men gathered on 
the village green. Pitcairn rode up to the minute-men, 
crying, “Disperse, you villains!” and, as the men refused, 
commanded the soldiers to fire. Two volleys were dis¬ 
charged, and eight Americans were killed and more than that 
. number wounded. The citizens, retiring before the superior 
force, returned the fire, wounding one or two of their assail¬ 
ants. The main body of the British came up and the whole 
force marched on to Concord. 

The soldiers were able to destroy at Concord but few 

1 Rumors of Gage’s intention had reached the Americans in Boston 
some hours in advance. As soon as the soldiers set out, Paul Revere 
and William Dawes rode rapidly by different routes toward Lexington, 
arousing the people along the way. The brave messengers undertook 
a dangerous task, and both had narrow escapes, but they succeeded 
in spreading the alarm. 


130 


THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 


m 

military supplies, for nearly all had been removed. The 
rapidly increasing strength of the minute-men, who had been 
assembling in the town since early morning, made the 
situation so dangerous for the British that soon all the troops 
were in retreat, with the Americans following closely and 
harassing them at every step. Meanwhile the news spread 
from village to farm and from farm to village, and the whole 
region was in arms. In the highroad and open field, from 



The Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775 

After an engraving made by two Continental militia-men who 
were in the battle 


behind houses, trees, and fences, ready marksmen poured 
their shots upon the retreating soldiers. The British killed 
and wounded fell fast, and the fire grew so galling that the 
retreat became a panic. The entire force seemed doomed 
to destruction, when reenforcements with cannon arrived, 
and under this protection the survivors reached Boston, 
The British lost about three times as many men as the 
Americans. 

Effect of the Battle. — The killing of citizens at Lexington, 
and the heroic stand of the farmers at Concord, kindled 
the flame of war from New Hampshire to Georgia. Men of 
every vocation laid aside their work to go to the front. 













132 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

By the end of the month a large army had collected around 
Boston and shut the British up in the town. 

Patriots, who had come to believe that the rights of 
America could be saved only by resort to force, were heart¬ 
ened by the victory and by the outpouring of the people 
that followed. The Tories in America, or Loyalists as they 
are sometimes called, were correspondingly discouraged 
They saw in the battle an obstacle that would make it much 
harder to secure the reconciliation with the mother country 
that they so much desired. 



The Battle at Concord, April 19, 1775 

Showing the detachment of regulars who fired first on the provincials at the 

bridge — the provincials headed by Colonel Robinson and Major Buttrick. 

From the engraving by Anthony Dolittle in the Hancock-Clarke House at Lexington 

Amazement in England. — When the news reached Eng¬ 
land the people could hardly believe, at first, that ill-armed 
and ill-disciplined farmers could make veteran British 
soldiers run as reports said that they ran from Lexington 
When convinced of the truth of the news they felt greatly 
humiliated. They shared the belief of the Tories in America 
that reconciliation would now be much more difficult, and 
they blamed General Gage for bringing on the conflict 
Yet the British government showed no lessening of its pur 
pose to make the Americans submit. 

Making war upon America was not popular with the 
English people, and volunteers for service in the army 
did not come forward very fast. To fill the ranks the kin g 







THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 


133 


hired soldiers from princes in Germany. During the war 
about thirty thousand of these foreign soldiers were em¬ 
ployed. Many were Hessians, and the Americans called 
all of them by this name. The Americans detested them 
because they were hirelings; yet, these unfortunates are not 
to be greatly censured, for they were compelled by their 
princes to fight, against their will, for the English king. 

Second Continental Congress. — In the month following 
the battle of Lexington, Congress met again in Philadelphia. 
It declared that independence of Great Britain was not 
sought; that peace was desired, but that Great Britain had 
begun the war; and that allegiance to the mother country 
would be restored by a return to conditions as they were 
before 1763 (the end of the French and Indian War). 

While desiring peace, 

Congress took steps for the 
public defense. A call was 
made for twenty thousand 
men to form a continental 
army, for which the forces 
around Boston were 
accepted as a nucleus. 

George Washington, of 
Virginia, was chosen com¬ 
mander-in-chief. Washing¬ 
ton was present as a 
member of Congress, and 
he accepted in a modest 
speech. Three million 
dollars in paper money 
were issued. Later a 
small navy was created. 

Bunker Hill. — Before 
Washington assumed command an important battle had 
been fought near Boston. The Americans, on learning that 
the British commander intended fortifying Bunker Hill — a 
point overlooking Boston — determined to anticipate him. 



Bunker Hill Monument 



134 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

In the darkness of night, a detachment of Americans, com¬ 
manded by Colonel Prescott, fortified Breed’s Hill, just 
across Charles River from Boston and between the town 
and Bunker Hill. On the next day, June 17, 1775, three 
thousand British troops crossed the river in boats to take the 
fortification. Twice the British marched up the hill, and 
twice they were driven back by terrific volleys from the 
Americans. The third assault was successful; the Americans, 
having exhausted their ammunition, were driven from the 
hill. The British loss was more than a thousand; the 
American less than five hundred. The result, while not a 
victory for the patriots, greatly encouraged the Americans 
yet, in one respect, it had an unfortunate effect. It created 
in America the belief that untrained militia was a match 
for regular soldiers, an error which, during the course of 
the war, was to prove most costly. 

Washington Assumes Command. — Early in July, Gen 
eral Washington took command of the army around Boston 
The army, now numbering sixteen thousand, was in woeful 
want of training and discipline. No one government had 
control over the army; on the contrary, troops from each- 
colony looked to their own government for orders. Con¬ 
gress, having no power, could only give advice. Having 
enlisted for only a short period, many of the men, after the 
first flush of enthusiasm was over, insisted upon returning 
home. Besides, the army lacked everything necessary for 
the war. The people of New England cheerfully fed the men; 
but, though every colony did all it could, it was impossible 
to supply the clothes, tents, arms, and ammunition needed. 1 

Washington was too good a soldier to be deceived by the 
gallant stand of the farmers at Bunker Hill into the belief 
that raw militia could wage successful war against regulars. 
Often his heart sank; but not once did he despair. He 
first rearranged the lines of his army to make surer the hold- 

1 Even from distant Georgia came aid. The people of that colony 
sent a quantity of powder which they had taken from a British ship 
near Savannah. 



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REFERENCE MAP FOR THE REVOLUTION 

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THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 


135 


tng of the British in Boston. Then, he set to work to train 
and discipline the men. He did all that it was humanly 
possible to do to make a fit fighting force of the motley 
gathering. 

Evacuation of Boston. — During the summer and winter 
following the battle of Bunker Hill Washington’s army laid 
siege to Boston where the British forces were too weak to 



risk a battle. With the coming of spring Washington, still 
lacking ammunition sufficient for an assault upon the town, 
determined to force the British out to sea. For this purpose 
he fortified Dorchester Heights, a point overlooking the 
town, which General Howe, who had succeeded Gage in 
command of the British, had failed to occupy. He accom¬ 
plished this in one night, and the British were amazed 
the next morning to see on the heights a redoubt command¬ 
ing the town. Realizing that his army and fleet were at 
Washington’s mercy, Howe evacuated Boston on March 17, 
5776. The fleet carried the troops and many of the Tories 





136 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


of Boston to Nova Scotia. The Americans took possession 
of the town, securing military supplies of great value. 

Moore’s Creek; Fort Moultrie.— The southern colonies 
bore a share of the fighting of the early part of the war. 
In North Carolina there were many Scotch Highlanders 
loyal to the crown. With other Tories they marched toward 
Wilmington for the purpose of entering the king’s service. A 
battle was fought, in February, 1776, at Moore’s Creek (near 
Wilmington) between this force and a smaller body of patriots. 
The Highlanders and their allies were completely routed. 
The victory firmly planted the cause of liberty in the colony. 

A strong British fleet appeared off Charleston, South 
Carolina. On board was an army whose purpose was to over¬ 
run the colony if the 
town was captured. On 
Sullivan’s Island, in the 
harbor of Charleston, 
there was a fort built 
of palmetto logs. The 
fort mounted only a few 
cannon, for which there 
was very little powder. 
The garrison, too, was 
small, but the men were 
courageous and were 
under a brave leader, 
Colonel William Moultrie. On June 28, 1776, the fleet 
advanced upon the fort and hurled against it an incessant 
shower of balls. The heavy cannonading of the enemy did 
little damage, as the balls went over the fort or sank, into 
the soft palmetto, while the well-directed fire of the Americans 
raked the deck of every ship. 1 

1 The flagstaff on Fort Moultrie was shattered by one of the enemy’s 
balls, and the flag fell on the beach in front of the fort. Sergeant 
William Jasper leaped over the rampart, and braving the thickest of 
the fire, recovered the flag. Attaching it to the sponge staff of a cannon, 
he replanted it on the fort. For his heroic deed he was offered a lieu¬ 
tenant’s commission, which he modestly declined. 



Sergeant Jasper at Fort Moultrie 


THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 


137 



The contest, one of the severest of the war, lasted from 
morning until nightfall, when the fleet retired. The fort was 
afterwards named Moultrie in honor of its brave defender. 
The victories at Moore’s Creek and Charleston saved the 
southern colonies from further invasion for two years. 

The Outlook for the 


Colonies. — Fifteen 
months of war had not 
given promise of success 
to the colonies. It is 
true that the British 
army had been forced 
out of Boston, but this 
army, still in Nova 
Scotia, had been 
strengthened and was 
making ready for a 
campaign against the 
revolting colonies with 
the assistance of a large 
fleet. Washington’s 
army, depleted by the 
System of short enlist- 
ments and further 
weakened by lack of 
discipline, was not in 
fit condition to oppose 
such an overwhelming 
force. Another Ameri¬ 


can army, sent into ,, 

_ 1 , Monument to the Signers of the 

Canada to conquer that Mecklenburg Declaration at 
country and prevent an Charlotte, N. C. 

invasion of the British 

from the north, had come back shattered and beaten. In 
those days, without railroad or telegraph, news was slow in 
traveling. Reports of the victory at Fort Moultrie had not 
reached Philadelphia when the Continental Congress, despite 





















138 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

the gloom that had set in, declared the colonies independent 
of Great Britain. 

The desire for independence was at first of slow growth. 
The colonists, separated by a great distance from the mother 
country and long accustomed to manage their own affairs, 
had imbibed the spirit of freedom. But they preferred to 
be a part of the British empire, if only allowed their freedom. 
Even following the battle of Lexington, independence was 
not generally desired. The Continental Congress, meeting 
after the battle, disclaimed such a desire. But, as the war 
continued, and as Great Britain showed by the vigorous 
manner in which she conducted it that she intended to reduce 
the Americans to obedience by force, the patriots became 
convinced that they could no longer continue a part of the 
British empire and remain free. Perhaps no one thing did 
more to bring them to this belief than the news that the 
English king had hired foreigners to make war upon his 
English subjects. 

Royal Governments Disappear. — Meanwhile, the patriots 
had taken charge of the colonial governments, organized 
regiments, and issued paper money. The royal governors 
in New York, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina 
had sought refuge on British war vessels. The Georgians 
had seized their governor and put him under arrest. By 
the close of 1775 royal government had virtually disappeared 
from the thirteen colonies. As yet, however, there was no 
concerted movement toward independence. 1 

The Declaration of Independence. — As the months wore 
on the sentiment grew that the colonies should take united 
action about independence. In April, 1776, North Carolina 
authorized its delegates in Congress to vote for independence, 
and a month later Virginia instructed its delegates to propose 
independence. Within a. very short time after the action 

1 The people of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, took an 
advanced step. On receiving news of the battle of Lexington, dele¬ 
gates from different parts of the county, assembled at Charlotte 
(May 20, 1775), declared the county independent of Great Britain. 


THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 


*39 

of North Carolina and Virginia, most of the colonies had 
signified their desire for separation from Great Britain 
On July 2, 1776, Congress, on 
motion of Richard Henry Lee, 
of Virginia, resolved that “the 
united colonies are, and of a right 
ought to be, free and independent 
states.” To give form to the 
resolution, Congress, on July 4, 

1776, adopted The Declaration of 
Independence . 

The Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence, written by Thomas 
Jefferson of Virginia, is in many 
respects the most important 
political paper ever given to the 
world. It asserts that all men 
are created equal, and that governments derive their just 
powers from the consent of the governed; that, therefore, 
when a government fails to secure to a people the inalienable 
rights given them by the Creator, such as life, liberty and 
the pursuit of happiness, they have the right to establish 
for themselves another government. At a time when 
nearly every country was ruled by the dictates of a king, the 
Declaration of Independence proclaimed the rights of man 



Richard Henry Lee 


Topics and Questions 

1. What double purpose did General Gage have in sending soldiers 
to Lexington and Concord? How was the alarm spread? Describe 
the battles of Lexington and Concord. What was their effect upon 
America? Upon England? Why was King George forced to employ 
foreign soldiers in his efforts to subdue his subjects in America? 

2. What declarations were made by the Second Continental Con¬ 
gress? What steps did it take for the public safety while awaiting 
Great Britain’s response? Whom did Congress appoint to the com¬ 
mand of the American army? 

3. Give all the details you can of the battle of Bunker Hill and tell 
what effect the battle had upon the Americans. Contrast the British 
and Continental soldiers before Boston in July 1775. How did Georgia 
help to supply the Continental army stationed about Boston? 


140 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 



Room in which the Declaration was Signed 


4. Describe the British evacuation of Boston. What was the 
fate of the loyal Scotch Highlanders at Moore’s Creek? Tell about 
the repulse of the British at Fort Moultrie. 

5. What change in the public mind had fifteen months of war 
brought about? Summarize the conditions of royal governments in 
the thirteen colonies at the end of the year 1775. What anniversary 
do North Carolinians celebrate on May 20? 

6. What action did North Carolina take in regard to independence? 
What action did Virginia take? When was independence resolved 
upon by the united colonies? When was it declared? Who worded 
the Declaration of Independence? Why is the Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence one of the most important political papers ever given to the 
world? 

Project Exercises 

1. Trace the slow growth in America of sentiment for independence, 
(Seepages 109, 114, 120, 127, 128, 129). 

2. One of the principles for which the recent great World War was 
fought was the right of every nation to have the government of its own 
choosing; show the relation of the Declaration of Independence to this 
principle. 

Important Dates: 

1775. Battle of Lexington — beginning of the Revolutionary War 

1776. Battle of Fort Moultrie. 

1776* July 4. Declaration of Independence. 
































































CHAPTER XJT 

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 

Colonies Become States. — With its assumption of in« 
dependence each colony declared itself a state. From that 
time forward Americans saw a higher purpose in the war. 
No longer were they fighting for redress of grievances as 
members of the British empire, but to gain for themselves 
a place in the world as a separate people. Many weary 
years of warfare had yet to pass before the states made 
good their claim to independence. 

Capture of New York. —Shortly after the Declaration of 
Independence, General Howe landed his army on Staten 
Island, in New York harbor, with the object of dividing 
the strength of America by separating New England from 
the rest of the country. Washington, suspecting Howe’s 
purpose, had already marched his army from Boston ta 
New York. The combined forces of the enemy almost 
doubled those of Washington. Twenty thousand British 
troops attacked four thousand Americans on Long 
Island, where Washington had placed part of his army. 
The Americans were badly beaten. Howe had an oppor¬ 
tunity to capture the whole force on Long Island by 
pushing his attacks vigorously, but he moved so slowly 
that Washington, who had crossed to the island and taken 
command, had time to withdraw his troops to New York. 

The defeat on Long Island had greatly discouraged the 
Americans. The militia left the army in large numbers, 
and Washington saw his forces diminishing without being 
able to prevent it. The system of short enlistments made 
it impossible to keep a full and well-disciplined army, since 
its composition was constantly changing: troops coming 
and going. 

141 


142 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

When Howe landed a force above New York, Wash¬ 
ington withdrew in order to keep his little army from being 

captured, and Howe took 
possession of the town on 
September 15, 1776. Howe 
still moved leisurely and 
Washington still gave battle, 
yet so greatly superior were 
the enemy’s forces that they 
would eventually have sur¬ 
rounded the Americans had 
not Washington retreated from 
Manhattan Island. 

The Retreat across New 
Jersey. —Washington, believ¬ 
ing that the British general 
designed an attack upon Phila= 
delphia, crossed into New 
Jersey with the hope of 
stopping him. Cornwallis, a 
general serving under Howe, 
advanced against Washington, 
who was unable to collect 
forces enough for battle and 
retreated across New Jersey. Cornwallis gave hot pursuit 
Washington retired across the Delaware River into Pennsyb 
vania early in December. His men suffered severely on the 
retreat, their bare feet leaving blood-stains on the snow. 

The Continental Army. — Washington was perhaps 
nearer to despair than at any other time during the war. 
His forces, which had been composed mostly of militia, were 
reduced to less than three thousand. His brave heart must 
have been wrung when he wrote that unless volunteers 
speedily filled his ranks “the game is pretty nearly up.” 

Washington had from the first asked Congress to raise 
a regular army to serve until the end of the war, but Con¬ 
gress, doubting its power to do so and sharing the general 



George Washington in 1775 
After the portrait by Peale 


THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 


143 



A Continental 
Soldier 

After the picture by 
Chappel 


dread of a standing army, had not complied with his re¬ 
quest. Now that the situation had become so extreme, 
Congress was driven to take Washing¬ 
ton’s view. It therefore called for 
volunteers who would enlist for the 
term of the war and would serve under 
the direction of Congress, instead of 
their respective states. Not as many 
men responded as Congress had hoped, 
but those who did volunteer were 
formed into a compact army — the 
continental army — and they became, 
in time, well-disciplined veterans who 
bore the brunt of the war. For the 
present, however, Washington was 
obliged to continue the struggle with 
a handful of faithful men. 

The Middle States Demoralized.— 

These were discouraging days for 
America. With the defeat in Canada, New York in the 
hands of the enemy, New Jersey overrun, and Philadelphia 
threatened, the cause seemed hopeless. To add to the 
gloom a fleet on Lake Champlain had been destroyed, and 
Crown Point, a fort in upper New York, and Newport, 
Rhode Island, had been captured. The people of New 
Jersey and Pennsylvania were demoralized and would give 
little assistance to Washington; indeed many hastened to 
take the oath of allegiance to the king. Congress, fearing 
that the fast dwindling American army would not be able to 
defend Philadelphia, adjourned to Baltimore. “These are 
the times,” said an eminent patriot, “that try men’s souls.” 

Trenton and Princeton. — But the enemy did not cross 
into Pennsylvania. The British generals, confident that 
they could capture Philadelphia at any time, put their 
troops into winter quarters, stationing detachments at 
various points in New Jersey. 

Reenforcements had raised Washington’s army to about 


144 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

five thousand. Yet the enlistments of many of the men 
would expire soon, and Washington knew that they would 
then go home. If he was to win a victory that would arouse 
the drooping spirits of the American people, he must act 
quickly. He determined to fall upon a large body of Hes¬ 
sians at Trenton, New Jersey. On Christmas night (1776), 
which he believed would be most suitable for a surprise 
because the Hessians would probably be carousing, Washing¬ 
ton crossed the Delaware with a small part of his army 



Independence Hall, Philadelphia 
Where the Continental Congress met 


Through falling snow and sleet the men guided the boats 
amid masses of floating ice that threatened destruction at 
every moment. The surprise was complete. The Hes¬ 
sians were routed, many of their number being killed or 
taken prisoners. A large quantity of arms also fell to the 
victors. Washington lost but four men, two of whom were 
frozen to death. 

Cornwallis, thinking the war over, was on the eve of sail¬ 
ing from New York for England, when news of the battle of 
Princeton reached him. He hastened with British troops 
to Trenton. Washington’s position between the river and 
the enemy’s superior force was critical, but Cornwallis made 








THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 


145 


no attack on the night of his arrival, saying that he would 
“catch the fox in the morning.” The “fox” was too sly for 
him. Leaving his campfires burning to deceive the enemy, 
Washington steadily marched around Cornwallis, and arriv¬ 
ing at Princeton about sunrise of the next day, January 3, 
1777, there surprised and defeated another British garri¬ 
son. When Cornwallis discovered that Washington had 
outwitted him, it was too late for him to aid the garrison 
at Princeton. After this battle, Washington went into 
winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey. 

New Jersey Recovered. — The effects of the successes at 
Trenton and Princeton were immediate. The people of New 
Jersey were encouraged to rise 
against the invaders. Mili¬ 
tia seized nearly all the British 
posts, and many recruits 
joined Washington’s army. 

By the middle of the summer 
the British had entirely evacu¬ 
ated New Jersey and retired 
to New York. Washington 
had been urged to risk a battle 
with Howe, but he prudently 
avoided doing so, for even with 
the recruits his army was not 
nearly as strong as that of the 
enemy. He remained at 
Morristown, wondering why 
Howe did not make an attack, 
which might have been dis¬ 
astrous to the Americans owing 
to their wretched condition. 

The “ Stars and Stripes.” — 

In the early part of the war 
the American army used a flag which bore thirteen stripes, 
alternating red and white, to represent the thirteen colonies, 
and in the upper corner next the staff the crosses of Great 



Flag of the United Colo¬ 
nies in 1775-1777 



First Flag of the 
United States 
Adopted by Congress in 

1777 


146 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Britain, to show that the colonies did not claim independence. 
The Declaration of Independence made desirable a change in 
the design of the flag. On June 14, 1777, the crosses of 
Great Britain were replaced by thirteen stars in a blue 
field. This flag, with the addition of a star for each state 
subsequently admitted into the Union, is the “Stars and 
Stripes” of to-day. June 14 is now observed throughout 
the United States as “flag day.” 

Burgoyne Comes Down from Canada. — The capture of 
the city of New York was but the first step in the British 
plan of separating New England from the rest of the 
country. New York state must be conquered, and for this 
purpose it was necessary to secure control of the Hudson 
River. It was arranged that a large army should descend 
from Canada by way of Lake Champlain and at Albany 
join a force that Howe was expected to take up the Hudson 
from New York City. 

General Burgoyne commanded the army from Canada. 
Besides British, Hessians, Canadians, and Tories, this army, 
nearly ten thousand strong, had also in its ranks many 
Indians with whom the British government had made an 
alliance. The army began its movement early in the sum¬ 
mer of 1777. General Schuyler, who commanded an 
American force less than half the size of the enemy, so 
delayed Burgoyne that he was two months in reaching the 
Hudson. Burgoyne’s position was now very insecure 
Supplies were running low and his forces were reduced by his 
having to leave garrisons at posts in the rear. Volunteers, 
together with reenforcements sent by Washington, were 
swelling the army in front of him, and militia hung upon 
his flanks; he could not make a vigorous advance, nor 
could he retreat. 

Just as the trap was closing on Burgoyne, Congress re¬ 
moved General Schuyler from command of the American 
army and appointed General Horatio Gates in his stead. 

Surrender of Burgoyne. — Anxiously, but in vain, Bur¬ 
goyne had looked for aid from Howe. Still hoping to break 


THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 


r 4 7 

through the American lines, he assaulted (September 19} 
their fortified position near Saratoga, but failed. Waiting 
a few weeks, and still not hearing from Howe, he again 
made an assault and was defeated (October 7). In 
neither battle did Gates take an active part; the fighting 
was directed by his officers, especially Benedict Arnold and 
Daniel Morgan. 

Burgoyne, now almost surrounded and despairing of aid 
from Howe, surrendered on October 17, 1777. Besides his 
army, reduced to about six thousand, a large amount of 



The Surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga 


munitions of war was captured. Burgoyne’s surrender had 
most important results. It saved New England and New 
York state and was the immediate cause of a treaty of 
alliance with France. 

Capture of Philadelphia. — Howe’s failure to go to the 
aid of Burgoyne was due to his belief that it would be better 
to capture Philadelphia first. A few days after Burgoyne 
began his march, Howe moved his army out of New York 
and started across New Jersey toward Philadelphia. Wash¬ 
ington immediately followed him. The British general, 
thinking it unwise to leave Washington’s army in his rear, 
returned to New York. Three weeks were thus lost. After 


148 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

further delay, Howe carried his army on ships down the 
Atlantic coast and up the Chesapeake Bay, so as to reach 
Philadelphia from the south. Six weeks more had passed 
when Howe began his march northward toward Philadelphia. 
At Brandywine Creek, in Pennsylvania, he found the alert 
Washington across his path. In the battle that followed 
the Americans, greatly inferior in numbers and equipment, 
were defeated; yet Washington continued to obstruct the 
enemy’s march, and a fortnight went by before Howe was 
able to enter Philadelphia, September 26, 1777. Congress 



Valley Forge 

Washington and Lafayette visiting the suffering army. After the painting 
by A. Gilbert 


had again fled, this time going to York, Pennsylvania. 
Washington had been unable with his little army to prevent 
the loss of Philadelphia; but it was now too late for Howe 
to send assistance to Burgoyne. 

A Winter of Gloom; Valley Forge. — After an unsuc¬ 
cessful attempt to defeat by surprise a part of Howe’s 
army, encamped at Germantown, near Philadelphia, 
Washington went into winter quarters at Valley Forge, 
Pennsylvania. Discouraging as the winter of 1776-1777 
was for the American cause, the winter of 1777-1778 was 
more discouraging. The country was almost in despair, 





THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 149 

Congress, whose measures could be carried out only if the 
people chose, had lost influence. Most of the able men 
who had been in Congress were serving their state govern¬ 
ments, and the sessions held at York were poorly attended 
and were disturbed by jealousies and quarrels. Congress 
had neither revenue nor credit, and being without power to 
tax, had resorted to large issues of paper currency — called 
‘‘continental money”—which had become almost worth¬ 
less. People preferred to sell to the British for good 
money, and withheld supplies from the American army. 
The half starved American soldiers deserted in such 
numbers that the army at Valley Forge was reduced to 
about five thousand. 

History presents no sadder picture than the sufferings of 
the little band at Valley Forge, and no nobler illustration 
of devotion to a patriotic cause. The men, shivering from 
the bitter cold, erected huts in the forest. No one was fully 
clad. Many were without shoes, their bare feet bleeding 
on the snow; others were in rags. A suit of clothing often 
served two soldiers — one 
wearing it while the other re¬ 
mained in his hut. There 
was much sickness, and many 
died for want of straw or 
other bedding to protect them 
from the cold, damp ground. 

Suffering patriots often sat up 
by the fire all night to keep 
warm. Meat or bread would 
be lacking for days, and fre¬ 
quently food and fuel were 
brought a great distance on 
the backs of men trudging 
through snow and ice. But 
with it all a small band of heroes remained together. 

Clark Saves the Northwest. — British agents were in¬ 
citing the Indians to ravage the settlements in the North- 



George Rogers Clark 


150 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

west. To put a stop to this cruel mode of warfare, George 
Rogers Clark, a young Virginian who had removed to 
Kentucky, proposed to the authorities of Virginia an expe¬ 
dition against the British posts in the Northwest. The 
project pleased Patrick Henry, who was then governor, 
and he commissioned Clark to execute it. With less than 
two hundred men Clark made his way through nearly a 
thousand miles of wilderness, and in the summer of 1778 
captured Kaskaskia (Illinois), Cahoka (Illinois), and Vin¬ 
cennes (Indiana). These posts had been established many 
years before by the French government when it occupied 
the territory, and the French inhabitants, who were favor¬ 
able to the American cause, assisted Clark. The remarkable 
achievements of this mere handful of Americans had a most 
important result. By the Quebec Act (see page 126) Great 
Britain had annexed the country north of the Ohio to the 
province of Quebec. When peace came Virginians were 
holding this territory by force of arms. But for Clark and 
his men, the northern boundary of the United States would 
perhaps have been the Ohio River instead of the Great 
Lakes. 


Topics and Questions 

1. What did each colony become upon the strength of the Declara¬ 
tion of Independence? 

2. Describe the capture of New York. Explain how the conduct 
of American soldiers after the defeat on Long Island showed the dis¬ 
advantage of short enlistments. 

3. Why did Washington retreat across New Jersey into Pennsyl¬ 
vania? What did Washington, grieving over the condition of his army, 
write regarding the prospect for American success? WTiy was Congress 
slow to grant Washington's request for a regular army? What did 
Congress finally do to give Washington a regular army? 

4. Give the causes for the gloom in America toward the end of the 
year 1776. Tell how the “surprise Christmas party" Washington 
gave the Hessians at Trenton and how his clever generalship at Prince¬ 
ton cheered the Americans for a while. 

5. How did the first American flag show the loyalty of the colonists 
for Great Britain? Where did we get our “Stars and Stripes" of 
to-day? 


THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 


151 


6. Describe the British plan of campaign for the summer of 17770 
Who made up Burgoyne's army? Recount Burgoyne’s route, perils 
and defeat. What were the far-reaching results of Burgoyne’s sur= 
render? What was the result of Howe’s campaign against Washington? 
Was Washington to blame for the loss of Philadelphia? 

7. Who was to blame for the “winter of gloom” (1777-1778), and 
how much of it could have been avoided? What troubles did the 
American army have at Valley Forge? 

8. Tell the story of the capture of Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vin¬ 
cennes, stating the importance of this “invasion of the Northwest/ 9 
To whom was the capture of the Northwest mainly due? 


Project Exercises 


1. Which side do you think had the best of the war up to the end of 
1778? Give your reasons. 

2. Find on the map all the places mentioned in this chapter. 
Important Dates: 

1777. Adoption of the “Stars and Stripes.” 

1777. Surrender of Burgoyne. 



Copper Cent Coined in 1783 




CHAPTER XIII 
AFTER THE FRENCH ALLIANCE 


The French Alliance. — Many persons of continental 
Europe sympathized strongly with America’s struggle for 
liberty, and some volunteered their services. Marquis de 
Lafayette, a rich young nobleman of France, Baron de 
Kalb, also from France, Kosciusko and Count Pulaski from 
Poland, and Baron Steuben from Prussia, were foreigners 
of distinction who served in the American army. De Kalb 
and Pulaski gave their lives for the cause. 


From the beginning of hostil¬ 
ities Congress had endeavored 
to secure the aid of govern¬ 
ments of continental Europe 
and especially of France. The 
king of France, Louis XVI, 
had no liking for the demo¬ 
cratic ideas of the Americans, 
but he hated Great Britain and 
wished to see her crippled 
through the loss of her 
American possessions. The 



H\ • many prominent persons of 

France who sympathized with 
Marquis de Lafayette the Americans urged the king 
After a French engraving of his time to help the United States. 

For some time Louis XVI had 
secretly sent money and supplies to America, and had 
allowed American war vessels preying upon English com¬ 
merce to use the ports of France. He would not further 
risk war with Great Britain until he felt that America was 
in a fair way to succeed. The surrender of Burgoyne 
decided him. Early in 1778 France made an open alliance 


152 


AFTER THE FRENCH ALLIANCE 


*53 

with the United States. The treaty was secured mainly 
through the efforts of Benjamin Franklin. 

Spain, Holland, and the “ Armed Neutrality.” — War 

between Great Britain and France followed immediately. 
This war drew in its train Spain and Holland, both engaging 
in hostilities against Great Britain. The British policy 
of interfering, under stress of war, with neutral commerce 
offended other countries. 

The nations of northern 
Europe formed a league, 
known as the “armed 
neutrality ”; while they did 
not declare war against 
Great Britain, they agreed 
to use their combined 
navies in attacking Great 
Britain every time the 
British attacked the com¬ 
merce of a member of the 
league. Thus while Great 
Britain was fighting 
America, she was also fight¬ 
ing three of the most power¬ 
ful nations of Europe. 

America Refuses British Peace Terms. — Expecting the 
French alliance, Great Britain had attempted to make 
peace with America by offering to grant practically every¬ 
thing for which the colonies had gone to war. When the 
Americans, now determined upon independence, refused 
to accept peace upon any other terms, Great Britain did 
not shrink from the contest. Though handicapped by 
having to use much of her strength against her European 
enemies, she resolved to push the war in America with vigor. 

Monmouth. — The British government was displeased 
with General Howe because he was too slow. More than 
once he had let slip an opportunity to crush, or at least 
severely defeat, Washington’s army. Howe resigned and 



Benjamin Franklin 
After the portrait by Duplessis 


154 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

General Clinton was appointed to command in his place 
Clinton was directed to evacuate Philadelphia because, 
there was fear that a French fleet might blockade the 
Delaware River and shut off supplies intended for the 
British army. In the summer of 1778, Clinton withdrew 
his army through New Jersey toward New York. The 
condition of Washington’s army had greatly improved with 
the coming of warm weather, so he followed and attacked 
Clinton near Monmouth, New Jersey, and drove him from 
the field. Clinton continued his retreat to New York, 
and Washington encamped not far from that city. The 
armies had returned to the positions they had occupied two 
years previously. 

John Paul Jones’s Naval Victory. — In the autumn of 17 79, 
John Paul Jones, of the American navy, commanding the Bon 
Homme Richard , a rechristened old French merchant vessel 
which the French government had 
lent to America, attacked the much 
superior British ship Serapis off the 
coast of England. The battle lasted 
for hours. The vessels were so close 
that the muzzles of their cannon 
touched. The Bon Homme Richard 
began to sink; but Jones lashed the 
ships together, and the fight went 
on. The enemy’s ship frequently 
took fire, and at times both vessels 
were wrapped in flames. t The decks 
were strewn with dead and wounded. 
Finally the British commander sur¬ 
rendered. Jones and his men took 
possession of the Serapis, and the Bon Homme Richard sank. 
The British navy was the best in the world, and for an 
American to win a victory over one of her ships was 
considered one of the most notable exploits of the war. 

Condition of the Army under Washington.—The French 
alliance not only compelled Great Britain to employ much 



John Paul Jones 
After the etching by A. Yaren 


AFTER THE FRENCH ALLIANCE 


I 5S 


of her military and naval strength in other parts of the 
world, but it compelled her to draw considerable forces from 
Clinton’s army to defend the British possessions in the West 
Indies against attacks by the French. It was fortunate 
for the Americans that this was the case, for Washington’s 
army could hardly have withstood a strong attack from 
Clinton. The army had dwindled to less than four thousand 
men. Continental money had become absolutely worthless, 
and the soldiers could get almost no clothes nor food. Muti- 



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iONE SIXTH of a 



DOLLAR 

According 
I to a Refolu- 
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'ebruary 17 , 1776 


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§ in Philadelphia. 1776. § 


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Paper Money of the Revolution 
Reduced facsimile 


nies were with difficulty prevented. For three years, fol¬ 
lowing the summer of 1778, Washington’s army, encamped 
near New York, was unable to engage in active operations. 
It was only through further loans of money secured from 
France by John Laurens that the war could be continued. 

The War Transferred to the South. — Nevertheless, the 
British felt that they had failed to conquer the northern 
states. They hoped yet to put down the Revolution by 
overcoming the southern states; and they determined. 
















150 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

therefore, to center their energies upon that section, which 
had been free from invasion since the battle of Fort Moultrie, 

Georgia Overrun. — On December 29, 1778, a British 
force captured Savannah, Georgia. Detachments were 
sent into the interior to overrun the x state. Although the 
patriots resisted gallantly, soon Georgia, the youngest and 
the feeblest of the states, was completely at the mercy of the 
enemy. The royal government was temporarily reestablished. 

In the autumn of 1779, the American forces at Charleston, 
under the command of General Lincoln, and French troops 



The Siege of Charleston 
After the picture by Chappel 


commanaed by Count D’Estaing, joined in an attempt to 
retake Savannah. The allies made an impetuous assault 
and succeeded in planting their flags side by side upon the 
enemy’s works, but were finally driven back with heavy 
loss. The French sailed home, and the Americans withdrew 
to Charleston. 

South Carolina Overrun. — In the spring of 1780 
Clinton sailed from New York with a large part of his 
army to conduct the southern campaign in person. With 
his fleet and army he laid siege to Charleston. General 
Lincoln had made known to Congress the weak condition 


AFTER THE FRENCH ALLIANCE 


157 


of the state and had appealed for assistance, but all that 
Congress was able to do was to send him a small reenforce¬ 
ment. Hemmed in, both on land and sea, by an over¬ 
whelming force, the Americans, after holding out for nearly 
two months, were compelled to surrender. The city was 
pillaged by the British and Hessians. 

Detachments of the British, sent into the interior of 
the state, overran the country. The state seemed help¬ 
less; Congress was unable to give assistance; and many, 
under promise of protection, gave Clinton their paroles 
not to take up arms against the king. Clinton soon 
violated his promises by proclaiming that all who would 
not serve in the British army should be treated as rebels. 
His injustice led numbers of the paroled men to take up 
arms again in the patriot service rather than be forced to 
fight against their country. 

Partisan Warfare. — Early in the summer Clinton em¬ 
barked for New York, leaving Cornwallis in command in 
the South, with instructions to complete the subjugation of 
South Carolina and then conquer North Carolina and 
Virginia. But South Carolina 
was not conquered. The Whigs 
gathered under intrepid leaders 
and carried on a partisan war¬ 
fare. “They were neither 
regulars nor militia, but men 
who worked one day and fought 
the next.” Mounting their 
plow horses at a moment’s 
notice, and moving quickly in 
little bands, they would strike 
detachments of the enemy sud¬ 
den and severe blows and as 
quickly disappear again. 

Patriots from North Carolina 
and Georgia joined in the struggle against the invaders. 
Although in every other part of the country there was 



Francis Marion 


158 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

inactivity, these bands kept up the war. The British, 
harassed and perplexed by sudden attacks, were checked in 
their efforts to subdue the state. Chief among the partisan 
leaders were Francis Marion, Thomas Sumter, Andrew 
Pickens, and Elijah Clark, the last named operating chiefly 
in Georgia. Marion and Sumter were particularly active. 
The British called Marion “The Swamp Fox” and Sumter 
44 The Game Cock.” 

At length Congress sent to the aid of the state a few 
southern troops from Washington’s army. General Gates 
was placed in command. Militia flocked to his standard, 
and confident of victory he advanced against Cornwallis at 
Camden. The militia, which composed a large part of 
Gates’s command, fled at the first fire; and after a 
stubborn resistance the continentals were compelled to give 
way before vastly superior numbers. The routed Americans 
scattered in every direction. 

Turn of the Tide; King’s Mountain. — Once more the 
outlook was disheartening. The capture of one American 
-army at Charleston had been followed within a few months 
by the dispersion of another at Camden, and for a time 
not a partisan leader could gather forces enough to 
remain in the field. Bands of ruffians roamed the state; 
Whigs were murdered, their houses burned, and their wives 
and children driven into the forests . 1 

1 In this disheartening period occurred one of the saddest episodes 
of the war. Benedict Arnold, an American general who had fought 
with conspicuous gallantry on many battlefields, resented his not re¬ 
ceiving the promotion that he thought he deserved. He felt further 
aggrieved because he had been reprimanded by order of Congress for his 
conduct while in command in Philadelphia. Discontent rankling in 
him, he plotted to betray his country’s cause. Upon the promise of 
a commission as a general in the British service and a sum of money, 
he agreed to aid in entrapping Washington’s army by surrendering 
West Point, an important post on the Hudson, which he at the time 
commanded. John Andre, a major in the British army, who met 
Arnold in a secret interview to arrange the details, was arrested on his 
way back to New York by three American militiamen. Papers found 
in his stockings revealed the Wot. Arnold heard of the arrest in time 



REFERENCE MAP FOR THE REVOLUTION 
SOUTHERN STATES 



























■ 




























1 






















K 























» 






























































































AFTER THE FRENCH ALLIANCE 


159 

Elated by his success at Camden, Cornwallis marched to 
Charlotte, determined upon reducing North Carolina. But 
there soon came a change from the gloom that had settled 
over the patriot cause. Among the partisan bands that 
had so annoyed the enemy in South Carolina were some 
from the country beyond the mountains. The British 
major Ferguson, who was in the upper part of the state 
recruiting Tories, 
sent a message to 
the Westerners that 
if they did not 
remain quiet he 
would march over 
the mountains, hang 
their leaders, and lay 
waste the country. 

The hardy West¬ 
erners determined 
not to await Fergu¬ 
son’s coming, but to 
go forward and fight 
him. Collecting from 
southwestern Virginia and the Watauga settlements (now 
Tennessee, and led by William Campbell, John Sevier and 
Isaac Shelby they crossed the Alleghanies, pushed on into 
South Carolina, and attacked Ferguson and his eleven 
hundred men in their strong position on King’s Mountain, 
on October 7, 1781. Ferguson was slain, nearly half his 
command killed or wounded, and every survivor captured. 

The victory at King’s Mountain almost broke the power 
of the enemy in the South. Jefferson called it “the joyful 
turn of the tide.” The disheartened Tories would not give 

to escape to the enemy. Andre was hanged as a spy. Arnold survived 
for twenty-one years. He obtained the promised commission in the 
British army, and during the remainder of the war fought against his 
native land. He died in England, a miserable man, shunned and 
despised even by those who had been willing to accept his treachery. 



Cornwallis’s Wandering Campaign 
at the South 







l6o HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


Cornwallis the help he expected, and the British general, 
instead of proceeding with the conquest of North Carolina, 
sought safety by retreating into South Carolina. 

Cowpens. — General Nathanael Greene, whom Congress 
appointed to command all the Southern forces, sent a 
detachment under General Daniel Morgan to the western 
part of South Carolina to unite with the mountaineers to 
attack the British posts in that section. Cornwallis ordered 

his cavalry commander, 
Tarleton, to crush Morgan; 
he himself would gain 
Morgan’s rear and cut off all 
fugitives. Tarleton’s forces 
fell with terrible onslaught 
upon the Americans at Cow- 
pens, on January 17, 1781; 
but Morgan and his men not 
only stood their ground, but 
completely routed the enemy, 
chasing Tarleton many miles, 
Morgan, knowing that Corn¬ 
wallis with a large army wai 
only twenty miles away, 
retired with his prisoners into North Carolina. Cornwallis 
started in pursuit. Greene joined Morgan, and as his army 
was not strong enough to risk a battle, continued the 
retreat. Across the state of North Carolina the armies raced, 
When Greene reached Virginia, Cornwallis gave up the chase, 
Guilford Court House. — Greene, after resting and recruit¬ 
ing his army, returned to North Carolina to give battle 
to the enemy. He met Cornwallis, on March 15, 1781, 
at Guilford Court House, near the site of Greensboro. 
Though Greene had a larger army than Cornwallis could 
muster, a great part of his force was militia. After a gallant 
fight the American line was forced back; yet the British 
had suffered more than the Americans, losing six hundred 
men while the Americans lost only four hundred. As 



Nathanael Greene 



AFTER THE FRENCH ALLIANCE 161 

Cornwallis retained the field he claimed the victory, but hk 
army was so shattered that he retreated to Wilmington, 

The battle of Guilford Court House was one of the severest 
of the Revolution and had most important results. Corn¬ 
wallis could not remain in North Carolina after this battle, 
and he could not return to South Carolina except by going 
to Charleston by sea, so he moved into Virginia. He left 
in South Carolina a weakened force beset by partisan bands, 
and he carried into Virginia an army too feeble to cope with 
Washington. 

Close of the Campaign in the Carolinas and Georgia. — 

During the absence of Greene’s army the partisan bands, 
contending against the British forces that remained in South 
Carolina, did their work well. They waged a warfare that 
was wearing away the enemy “piece by piece.” They 
defeated exposed detachments; they seized military sup* 
plies; and in a few months they 
had captured so many posts that 
the British abandoned entirely 
the upper sections of South Caro¬ 
lina and Georgia, and fell back 
toward Charleston. 

In the autumn Greene, who 
had returned with his army to 
South Carolina, engaged in battle 
the British forces that had re¬ 
treated to Eutaw Springs, about 
sixty miles from Charleston. Al¬ 
though Greene could not drive 
the British from the field, yet on 
the second night after the battle 
they withdrew and continued 
their retreat until they reached Charleston. 1 

The Traitor Arnold in Virginia. — Early in the year Bene 
diet Arnold led a British army into Virginia. The state had 

1 It is of interest to note that “Light Horse Harry" Lee, father of 
Robert E. Lee, of Confederate fame, served with distinction in the 
campaign in the Carolinas. 



Anthony Wayne 


162 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


weakened her own defense by sending many of her soldiers 
to the assistance of the Carolinas. Richmond was burned, 
and the region along the James plundered. When Corn¬ 
wallis arrived in Virginia, he sent Arnold back to New York, 
as he was unwilling to have the traitor with him. Corn¬ 
wallis, no less, than Arnold, wantonly destroyed property 

wherever he went. 
But Lafayette 
and Anthony 
Wayne pressed 
him so closely that 
he retired toward 
the seacoast where 
he might more 
quickly receive 
reenforcements 
from New York 
He took position 
at Yorktown, on 
York River, which 
place he fortified, 
Surrender of 
Cornwallis. — 
Sketch-map of Yorktown Meanwhile a large 

AA = French and American batteries. BB = French and Well equipped 
batteries. C = British redoubt. RRR = French ships French army, 

commanded by 

Count Rochambeau, joined Washington on the Hudson. 
Washington had planned to attack Clinton in New York, but 
when he heard of the predicament of Cornwallis, a campaign 
against the latter general was decided on. In August 
the allied forces began their southward march of four 
hundred miles. Clinton, in New York, was in ignorance 
of Washington’s purpose until it was too late for him to 
help Cornwallis. The American and French armies arrived 
at Yorktown late in September, and in a few days had Corn¬ 
wallis completely hemmed in on the land side. A French 










AFTER THE FRENCH ALLIANCE 163 

fleet, under Count de Grasse, which had come up from the 
West Indies and driven off the British fleet, blockaded 
the river so that assistance could not reach the enemy from 
the sea. The forces of the allied armies amounted to about 
sixteen thousand, while Cornwallis had a much smaller 
number. By bombardment and assault the besiegers drew 
their lines closer and closer around the British general 
Having no chance for escape, Cornwallis surrendered, 


The Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, October 19, 1781 
From the painting by Trumbull, in the Capitol at Washington 

October 19, 1781. Besides his army, a considerable quantity 
of military supplies was captured. 

Treaties of Peace. — The joy among the patriots of Amer¬ 
ica over the surrender of Cornwallis knew no bounds. 
Though skirmishing continued for sometime longer in South 
Carolina and Georgia, yet Yorktown meant the end of the 
war. Great Britain had lost many thousands of men and 
spent hundreds of thousands of pounds in the fruitless at¬ 
tempt to subdue the colonies, besides having become engaged 
in war with France, Spain, and Holland. The British people 
were weary of the struggle and forced the king to agree to 


164 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


peace on terms acceptable to America. Negotiations pro¬ 
ceeded for two years. A preliminary treaty between the 
United States and Great Britain was signed at Paris on 
November 30, 1782, and a permanent treaty was signed at 
the same place on September 3, 1783. 

The treaty declared the several states, each by name, to 
be free and independent states. The boundaries of the 
United States were fixed as follows: the western boundary 
was the Mississippi River; the northern boundary was 
substantially the same as it is to-day east of that river; 
the southern boundary was the present northern boundary 
of Florida extended to the Mississippi. 

Great Britain also made, in 1783, treaties of peace with 
France, Spain, and Holland. Florida was ceded back to 
Spain by Great Britain. 

Fate of the Tories. — During the war, the states passed 
laws that confiscated the property of the Tories. Some 
Tories were banished from their states, while others fled 
to escape hardships imposed upon them. Upon the 
termination of the war many thousands removed to 
England, while even a greater number crossed the bonier 
and made their homes in Canada. Later Great Britain 
reimbursed the Tories for the losses they had suffered. 

Disbandment of the Army. — Though Charleston and 
Savannah had been evacuated in the previous year, New 
York was held by the British until November 25,1783. While 
waiting for the end of the peace negotiations, Washing¬ 
ton made his headquarters at Newburgh, New York. The 
treasury of the government was empty, and the soldiers, 
who had been without pay for a long time, justly feared 
that even with a return of peace they would not get their 
dues. The dissatisfaction in the army increased to an 
alarming extent. On one occasion a serious mutiny 
threatened, but Washington averted it with the tact 
that he always possessed. 

Washington’s Unselfish Patriotism. — Washington never 
displayed greater patriotism than at this time. He was the 


AFTER THE FRENCH ALLIANCE 165 

?dol of the army and the people. It was even suggested 
that he be made king, but he spurned all thought of self¬ 
advancement. By means of furloughs he gradually and 
quietly disbanded the army, and the brave defenders of their 
country returned penniless to their homes. Washington 
resigned his commission and retired to Mount Vernon, his 
beautiful home in Virginia, carrying with him the love of his 
countrymen and the admiration of the world. 



Mount Vernon 
Topics and Questions 

1. Name and describe the foreigners who volunteered to fight for 
the American cause. Trace the steps by which France came to give 
aid to America. What was the effects in Europe of the alliance with 
France? 

2. Why did Great Britain attempt to make peace with America? 
What was America’s answer? 

3. Why did the British evacuate Philadelphia? Describe the re¬ 
treat across New Jersey. Relate the story of the Bon Homme Richard . 

4. Give an account of the condition of the army under Washington 
after the summer of 1778. Why did the British transfer the war to 
the South? 

5. Tell about the capture of Savannah and the overrunning of 
Georgia. Tell about the capture of Charleston and the overrunning 
of South Carolina, Relate the story of the partisan leaders in the South. 





166 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


6 . Who won at the battle of Camden? What was the next move 
of Cornwallis and his forces? Why has the battle of King's Mountain 
been called the “joyful turn of the tide”? 

7. Describe as fully as you can the conditions and the motives which 
led Arnold to his treason. What were his reward and his punishment? 

8. Who succeeded Gates in command of the southern army? Was 
the removal of Gates a loss or gain to the army? What led to Morgan’s 
victory at Cowpens? Describe the retreat of the Continental army 
from Cowpens to Virginia. Who won at the battle of Guilford Court¬ 
house? How were South Carolina and Georgia recovered for the 
patriots? 

9. Give an account of the Yorktown campaign. What were the 
immediate and far-reaching results of the surrender of Cornwallis? 
What had the Revolutionary War cost Great Britain? What condition 
was recognized for each of the thirteen states by the Treaty of Paris ol 
1783? What were the bounds of the United States? 

10. What was the condition of Washington's army at the close of 
the war? What was Washington’s plan of disbandment? What 
honor followed Washington into his retirement at Mount Vernon? 


Project Exercises 

1. Review the position of the colonies in 1775 with reference to 
the quarrel with Great Britain (see page 133), and contrast it with 
the position of the states in 1778 with reference to the British offer of 
peace. 

2. What do you think would probably have been the result of the 
Revolutionary War if France had not aided America? Give specific 
reasons. 

3. Find on the map all the places mentioned in this chapter. 

4. Illustrate on a sketch map at the blackboard how the American 
and French armies, with the French fleet, encircled Cornwallis at 
Yorktown. 

Important Dates: 

1778. Alliance with France. 

1780. Battle of King’s Mountain. 

1781. Battle of Guilford Courthouse. 

1781. Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 

1783. Final treaty between Great Britain and the United States — 
bringing the Revolutionary War to a close. 


CHAPTER XIV 
“THE CRITICAL PERIOD ” 

The Articles of Confederation. — In 1777 the Continental 
Congress adopted “The Articles of Confederation,” pro¬ 
viding a form of government for the United States of America,, 
The government did not go into effect, however, until 1781, 
just before the close of the Revolutionary War, for it was 
necessary for all the states to ratify the Articles, and Mary- 
land did not do so until that year. 

The government of the Confederation was so imperfect 
that statesmen saw from the beginning that it would fail. 
The states reserved great power to themselves and gave little 
to the Confederation. The government of the United 
States was vested in a Congress of one house, to which dele¬ 
gates were elected annually, and in which each state, large 
or small, had one vote. The affirmative vote of nine states 
in Congress was required for the passage of nearly every 
important act, and the consent of the legislature of every 
state was necessary to amend the Articles of Confederation, 
There was no executive officer, such as the president of to-day. 

The states obeyed acts of Congress or not, as they 
pleased. Congress was given the right to declare war and 
make peace, yet it could not raise troops; it could 
make alliances and treaties with foreign nations, yet could 
not compel the states or the people to conform to them. 
Money for the support of the general government was to be 
raised by requisitions from Congress upon the several states* 
but the states gave little attention to the demand. Alex¬ 
ander Hamilton aptly said the government was “fit neither 
for war nor peace.” 

The Northwest Territory. — Maryland had withheld her 
consent to the Articles of Confederation because she had been 
unwilling to join the Confederation until the claims of other 

167 


168 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


states to the western lands should be set aside. Massa¬ 
chusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia based their claims to the 
country north of the Ohio upon their charters, while New 
York held a claim through treaties with the Indians. Vir¬ 
ginia claimed by far the greater part of the Northwest, and 
her claim was strengthened by the fact that her soldiers under 
Clark had taken possession of the territory. Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia made claim 
through their charters to territory south of the Ohio. 

Cession of Lands to the General Government. — Mary¬ 
land denied the validity of these claims, and held that the 
western lands should belong to the general government. 
'She also said that the separate possession of these lands 
would give the states claiming them unfair advantage over 
the others. When New York and Virginia ceded to Congress 
their claims to lands north of the Ohio, Maryland, without 
waiting for cessions from the other states, adopted the 
Articles of Confederation. Massachusetts and Connecticut 
later surrendered their claims. The government purchased, 
through treaties, the claims of the most important Indian 
tribes to the greater part of the territory. Thus the lands 
north of the Ohio became the undisputed property of the 
general government. 

Origin of the Territorial Governments. — The cession 
was made by the states on the condition that the lands 
should be sold to pay the debts of the United States, and 
that as soon as the population was sufficient, states should 
be made from the territory and admitted to the Union on 
an equal footing with the older states. Congress arranged 
for the sale of the lands, and in 1787 passed the ‘‘Ordinance 
of 1787,” forming “The Territory of the United States 
northwest of the Ohio.” Slavery was to be forever excluded 
from the territory. Provision was made for a government 
under the direction of Congress until the territory should 
be converted into states. In 1788, Marietta, the first 
permanent white settlement in Ohio, was founded by a 
party of people from New England. General Arthur St 



SPAN 


CLAIMED AS SEPARATE i 
STATE OF VERMONT • 

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THE CRITICAL PERIOD ” 


169 

Clair w ^ appointed the first governor of the Northwest 
territory. This territory covered the present states of 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and a 
part of Minnesota. 

The “State of Franklin. ,, — In 1784, North Carolina 
ceded to the general government her claim to lands west of 
the mountains, whereupon the people of the Watauga 
settlements and neighboring counties (now Tennessee) or¬ 
ganized an independent state with John Sevier as gov¬ 
ernor and called it the “state 
of Franklin” or “Frankland.” 

North Carolina in the mean¬ 
while repealed the act ceding 
the lands, and ordered that 
the government of Franklin 
be abolished. The order was 
not immediately obeyed, and 
for a time both the old and 
the new state made laws for 
and held courts in the terri¬ 
tory. Both attempted to col¬ 
lect taxes; but the settler, 
not knowing which was the 
legal government, paid to 
neither. In 1788 the “state of Franklin” came to an end* 
and full allegiance to North Carolina was restored. 

Financial Distress. — With the coming of peace the people, 
thinking that prosperity would immediately follow, became 
extravagant and ran into debt. As colonists they had been 
forbidden to manufacture many things; consequently, they 
had bought nearly all manufactured articles from England, 
and had paid for them with the proceeds from the sale of 
their products in that country. When the war closed, the 
Americans, still without factories, renewed their heavy 
purchases from England. But Great Britain, recognizing 
the weakness of the young republic, forbade, as formerly, 
Americans to trade with the British West Indies except in 



John Sevier 


170 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

British ships, and taxed all American products exported to 
Great Britain in other than British vessels. Spain refused 
to have commercial relations with America, and thus pre¬ 
vented trade with the Spanish West Indies. With such 
checks upon their outgoing trade, Americans could not 
pay for what they had bought from England, and financial 
distress became widespread. 

The condition of domestic trade was even more deplorable. 
The only specie—that is, gold and silver money — was 
foreign coin, and there was little of that, as most of it had 
been sent to pay debts abroad. The people could not meet 
their debts at home because they could get no money, and 
they set up a loud cry for relief. The states had issued 
paper money during the war; and they now, with few 
exceptions, issued more. This currency had no real value, 
but some of the states made it “legal tender”—that is, 
made it lawful money for paying debts. Few would take 
the paper money, and business became demoralized. Stay 
laws, postponing the payment of debts, were passed. 

Relief could not come from such legislation. Debtors 
grew riotous. In New Hampshire they threatened the legis¬ 
lature with violence because it had not relieved them, and 
in Vermont they refused to allow the courts to sit because 
suits for debts were to be tried. In New Jersey they nailed 
up the doors of courthouses, and in Virginia they burned 
courthouses. The most serious trouble occurred in Massa= 
chusetts, where debtors, led by Daniel Shays, prevented the 
courts from trying cases involving debts. They committed 
such depredations (1786-1787) that it was necessary for 
the militia to suppress this disorderly movement, which is 
known in history as “Shays’ Rebellion.” 

Efforts to Obtain Revenue. — In financial matters, the 
general government was faring no better than the people. 
The war had left the United States with a debt of more than 
fifty million dollars. There was no money in the treasury 
with which to pay the interest on this debt or to meet cur¬ 
rent expenses. Requisitions upon the states for funds were 


“THE CRITICAL PERIOD” *71 

refused or evaded. As early as 1781 Congress asked for 
authority to levy a tariff — a tax upon goods from foreign 
countries — in order to raise a revenue; but the consent 
of all the states was necessary, and Rhode Island refused. 
Congress renewed the request later and this time New 
York refused. These states took the ground that the con¬ 
cession would endanger the rights of the states by giving 
too much power to the general government. 

Drifting toward Anarchy. — A country that has a gov¬ 
ernment not strong enough to enforce its laws soon lapses 
into anarchy, a condition in which neither life nor property 
is safe. The United States seemed, under the Confedera¬ 
tion, to be rapidly drifting toward anarchy. So serious 
became the danger that the period is known as the ‘ ‘ critical 
period” of American history. Fortunately, respect for law 
and order, which is strong in the Anglo-Saxon race, finally 
prevailed. 

The Constitutional Convention. — At the instance of 
James Madison, the legislature of Virginia invited the other 
states to send commissioners to a convention to consider 
plans for giving Congress power to regulate commerce 
so that it might raise money for the general government 
by levying a tariff. Commissioners met at Annapolis in 
September, 1786. As they represented only five states and 
most of them had no authority to act on any question, they 
did nothing beyond recommending that a general conven¬ 
tion be called to meet in Philadelphia, in May of the fol¬ 
lowing year, for the purpose of devising measures for making 
the general government efficient. The Convention met in 
Philadelphia, in May, 1787, with George Washington as 
presiding officer. Every state except Rhode Island was 
represented. The Convention framed the Constitution of 
the United States. 

Outlines of the Constitution. — The Constitution divides 
the government into three branches — legislative, executive, 
and judicial. 

(1) The Congress. — The legislative branch, called Com 


172 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

gress, consists of two houses — the Senate and the House of 
Representatives. In the Senate every state has two mem- 
bers, and in the House the representation is based upon 
population. Senators and members of the House are elected 
by the people, the former to serve for six years and the latter 
to serve for two years. Among the powers conferred upon 
Congress are the following: to levy taxes, duties, and 
imports; to regulate commerce with foreign nations and 
among the states; to coin money; to establish post offices; 
to declare war; to raise and support armies; to provide and 
maintain a navy. 

(2) The President. — The executive is one officer, called 
President, whose duty it is to see that the laws of the United 
States are faithfully executed. He is the commander-in- 
chief of the army and navy. He appoints, by and with 
the advice and consent of the Senate, the higher officers of 
the government and, also by and with the advice and con¬ 
sent of the Senate, he makes treaties. He may veto a bill 
passed by Congress, but Congress may still make the bill a 
law by passing it over the veto by a two thirds vote of each 
house. The President’s term of office is four years, and he 
is chosen by an electoral college in which each state is 
entitled to as many votes as it has members of the two 
houses of Congress. 

A Vice President, who is elected at the same time as the 
President, is the presiding officer of the Senate; in case of 
the removal, death, resignation, or disability of the Presi¬ 
dent*, he becomes President and serves for the remainder of 
the term. 

(3) The Court. — The judicial branch consists of a 
supreme court and such inferior courts as Congress may 
establish. It has jurisdiction over all suits in matters per¬ 
taining to the general government, and all controversies 
between states or between citizens of different states. The 
judges hold office during good behavior. 

Compromises. — The convention while at work on the 
Constitution was not always harmonious. Debate was 


THE CRITICAL PERIOD 


173 


frequent, and at times discussion became heated. Many 
conflicting interests had to be reconciled, and two com¬ 
promises are worthy of notice. 

The first compromise was between the larger and the 
smaller states. The larger states desired that all represen¬ 
tation in Congress be based upon population. To this the 
smaller states objected. After a bitter debate, the plan 
which allows every state equal representation in the Senate, 
and apportions representation in the House according tc 
population, was agreed upon. 

The second compromise was between New Hampshire 
Massachusetts, and Connecticut, commercial states, ana 
South Carolina and Georgia, agricultural states. The 
commercial states desired that a simple majority vote of 
each house of Congress should regulate commerce, while 
the agricultural states advocated a two thirds vote. South 
Carolina and Georgia favored also a continuation of the 
ilave traffic. At that time slaves were held in all the states 
except Massachusetts, and in that state slavery had been 
abolished but a few years before. In the North, where 
slavery had never been profitable, opposition to the system 
had steadily grown, and most of the Northern states had 
already begun a gradual emancipation of the slaves within 
their limits. In the South there were about twice as many 
slaves as in the North. Mason and Dixon’s line, the bound¬ 
ary between Pennsylvania and Maryland, was recognized 
even at that early day as the division line between the free 
labor and the slave labor states. Thus the question of 
slavery had become sectional. 

The New England states made a “bargain,” as it 'was 
called, with the southernmost states, the result of which 
was the provision that a majority vote of each house of 
Congress should regulate commerce, and that the impor 
tation of slaves should not be prohibited before 1808. 

The Constitution Ratified. — The Constitution, when 
completed, was submitted by Congress to the several states 
for ratification. It was not adopted without considerable 


174 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


opposition, as many thought it granted too much power 
to the general government. It was at this time that Alex¬ 
ander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay successfully 
combated, in a series of able papers, the objections to the 
Constitution. Ratification by nine states was necessary 
for the establishment of the Constitution over the states 
ratifying. By the end of July, 1788, every state except 
Rhode Island and North Carolina had adopted the Con¬ 
stitution. Virginia and New York expressly proclaimed 
the right of reassuming the powers granted the general 
government, that is, the right of secession. Rhode Island, 
in adopting the Constitution two years later, did likewise 0 

Washington Elected President. — The first election for 
presidential electors was held in January, 1789. For the 
Presidency there was but one choice: all eyes turned to 
George Washington, who received every electoral vote. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Trace the steps taken to provide a general or national government 
for the United States. Why was the government of the Confederation 
weak from the outset? What made the acts of Congress ineffective? 

2. Upon what did various states base their claims to western lands? 
How did the United States come to own the Northwest Territory? 
Explain the origin of the territorial governments. What important 
provisions were contained in the “Ordinance of 1787”? What was the 
first settlement made in the Northwest Territory? Give the history 
of the “State of Franklin." 

3. Why did the Americans’ exports no longer pay for their imports? 
How do you account for lack of coin in the United States? Define 
paper money, legal tender, and debtor class. Would the debtor or 
creditor class be in favor of issuing more paper money? What was the 
object of “Shays’ Rebellion”? 

4. What was the financial condition of the general government? 
Why is the time of the Confederation called the “critical period” of 
American history? 

5. What state urged other states to give Congress power to regu¬ 
late commerce, and what more general movement came as a response? 
What states were represented in the Constitutional Convention, and 
who presided? 

6. For what branches of government did the new Constitution 


THE CRITICAL PERIOD 59 


175 


provide? State definitely, though briefly, the powers of Congress; of 
fche President; of the Supreme Court. 

7. Why did the framers of the Constitution have to make com 
promises? Give details of the chief compromises. How did this 
document, framed by the convention of 1787, become our Constitution? 
What statesmen helped most in getting this Constitution for us? 


Project Exercises 


1. Contrast the powers given the general government by the Com 
stitution to those given by the Articles of Confederation. 

2. Consult the Constitution to see whether United States Senators 
were always elected by the people. Ascertain how a provision of the 
Constitution may be amended. 

3. Give definite illustrations of large and of small states; of agri 
cultural and of commercial states; of slave labor and of free labor states, 

4. Name a country in which the confusion that followed the great 
World War caused a condition similar to anarchy. 

Important Date: 

<787. Framing of the Constitution of the United States. 



Federal Hall, New York 
N ational Capitol in 1789 








CHAPTER XV 

THE COUNTRY WHEN WASHINGTON 
BECAME PRESIDENT 

Population and its Distribution. — When Washington 

became President, the Union consisted of eleven states, 
for North Carolina and Rhode Island had not adopted the 
Constitution. The first census, taken the following year 
(1790), showed a population, exclusive of Indians, of not 

quite four mil¬ 
lion, or about 
two thirds the 
present number 
of inhabitants of 
New York City Q 
Nearly all the 
people of the 
United States 
dwelt on the 
Atlantic slope 0 
Although emh 

Black dots show the settled regions in the United grants had found 
States; circles show the regions of Canada in settlement; Ten 

crosses show the Spanish settlements; the white shows 
the unoccupied territory neSSee, Ixen = 

tucky, and Ohio, 

most of the country between the Alleghany Mountains 
and the Mississippi River was wilderness or prairie, and 
was overrun by Indians. Indeed, the race of red men 
extended so far east that they yet roamed over territory 
now within the limits of New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, 
the Carolinas, and Georgia. In Pennsylvania and Georgia 
their war whoop was still heard and their tomahawk still 
dreaded. 



176 















THE COUNTRY IN 1789 


177 


On the south, the country was bounded by Spanish 
territory. The western boundary of the United States was 
the Mississippi; the immense region beyond belonged to 
Spain. The old French settlements beyond the Ohio were 
too remote to attract emigrants. Where the great city 
of Chicago stands, there was then but a stretch of prairie. 
Even Pittsburgh, now the center of the great steel industry, 
was only a straggling village in the “Far West.” Cin¬ 
cinnati and Louisville were hardly worthy of the name of 



Farming Tools of Later Colonial Times 


towns. St. Louis, New Orleans, Mobile, and Pensacola were 
villages in Spanish territory, and so far off did they seem 
that they were looked upon almost as places in another 
world. 

Agriculture. — Most of the people lived by agriculture, 
but the mode of farming was very crude. Wooden plows 
were used. There was no machine for reaping, and hardly 
a man in America had seen the machine foi threshing which 
had just been invented in England. The grain was cut 
with a scythe, the implement which the Egyptians had been 
using for thousands of years, and was beaten out with a 
flail, made by joining two sticks together at the end with a 
stout cord or strap. But the farmer had to do without not 
merely the larger machines, like the reaper and the thresher.” 



178 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

many of the simplest an most common of labor-saving 
devices were unknown to him. 

Agriculture and Shipping in New England. — The 

New England farmer had to contend against long and 
severe winters, yet with his crops of hay, com, rye, and 
potatoes, he wrested a living from the stony soil. His mode 
of life was simple; his house was small and uninviting, and 
he ate plain food and dressed in cheap clothes. 

The New Englander of the coast towns found in the sea 
a great source of profit. In boats and ships of his own 
making he caught fish and harpooned whales along his 
native coast and on the banks of Newfoundland. He 
carried the products of America to the ports of Europe 
and the West Indies, and brought back manufactured goods, 
In spite of the restrictions imposed by the British naviga¬ 
tion laws, the commerce of colonial New England had 
been most profitable. During the Revolution the shipping 
trade almost ceased, and because the weak government of 
the Confederation was unable to make satisfactory trade 
relations with other countries, it did not revive until after 
the government under the Constitution was organized, 
Yet it had already laid the foundation of the wealth of New 
England, and had made the inhabitants of that section 
mainly a commercial people. 

Another source of considerable revenue to the New Eng¬ 
lander was the slave trade. His ships brought negroes from 
Africa to the Southern states, where they were sold intc 
slavery. 

Agriculture in the South. — It was in the South, 
where the winters are mild and short and the soil is fertile, 
that agriculture was most profitable. The wealthy Southern 
planter lived in luxury. His house, which was spacious 
and well furnished, stood at a distance from the public road 
and was approached by a beautiful avenue. On his 
plantation there were slaves who worked the fields or at¬ 
tended as servants about the master’s house. The slaves 
lived in groups of cabins called “quarters.” 


THE COUNTRY IN 1789 


179 


The chief products of the South were, in Virginia, tobacco, 
and, in the Carolinas and Georgia, pitch, tar, rice, and indigo. 
Cotton, which now covers every 
year millions of acres, was only a 
minor product and was frequently 
grown in the front yard as an orna¬ 
ment. The difficulty of separating 
the seed from the fiber by hand 
prevented the extensive cultivation 
of cotton. 

Manufactures. — Great Britain 
had placed so many restrictions upon 
colonial manufactures that the Indigo Plant 
colonists had long been accustomed 

to import manufactured goods from England, or to rely 
upon articles made at the fireside. Consequently, they 

Even at the time that Wash¬ 
ington was elected President, 
manufactures amounted to 
practically nothing. Nearly 
all the important inventions 
were patented in Great 
Britain, and the British law 
would not allow models or 
descriptions of them to be 
carried out of the kingdom 
(see page 234). With this 
immense advantage, the 
British were able to sell their 
goods in this country with 
much profit. Until the 
adoption of the Constitution 
gave a government with strength sufficient to pass laws to 
retaliate upon Great Britain for her selfish trade laws, there 
was little incentive for Americans to engage in manufacturing. 

There were, it is true, a few linen and woolen factories: 
but they were small concerns, with clumsy machinery that 


knew little of manufacturing. 



Spinning Wheel and Colonial 
Loom 














180 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

was worked by hand. Cotton was sometimes woven with 
linen, but in all America there was not a mill where cloth 
was made entirely of cotton. No sheetings, shirtings; 
checks, ginghams, or calicoes were manufactured. Iron 
foundries of the simplest kind, and a few sawmills, paper 
mills, and hat factories, would perhaps complete the list 
of manufacturing establishments. 

Domestic Handiwork. — There was a large market 
for articles made in the household, and from one end of the 
country to the other the home was a miniature factory. 
Father and son followed their trade at home, and mother 
and daughter turned the spinning wheel or plied the needle 
in making salable articles. From the home to the market 
went woolen and linen cloth, bedticks, cotton goods, hosiery, 
buttons, handkerchiefs, ribbons, threads, fringes, hats, shoes, 
nails, and many other wares. 

Punishment for Crime. — In some of the states punish¬ 
ments inflicted for the violation of law were still very cruel, 

Many offenses, for which 
slight punishments are now 
imposed, were then capital 
crimes. The whipping post, 
the stocks, and the pillory 
were yet in use. The prisons 
were filthy, loathsome places, 
which bred disease. Some 
had neither window nor 
chimney, and in some the 
cells were so low that an 
occupant could not stand up, 
and so narrow that when 
he lay down he had little 
more space than in a grave t 
Imprisonment for debt was 
permitted. Into the foul 
prisons, and among the vilest criminals, men were cast 
for no greater offense than that they could not pay their 



Whipping-Post 




THE COUNTRY IN 1789 


181 



debts. While, of course, the law that allowed such cruelty 
fell hardest on the poorer classes, yet it sometimes num¬ 
bered among its victims men who had once lived in luxury 
or who had held high positions. 

Thus it was that Robert Morris, a 
great financier and philanthropist, 
who raised money to support the 
army in the Revolution, having met 
with reverses in his old age, 
languished in a debtor’s prison. 

Barter. — As has already been 
stated, the only specie in America 
was foreign coin, and as this was 
very scarce, people had to manage as 
best they could without it. Barter 
was common everywhere. Many 
substitutes for money were used, such 
as whiskev in western Pennsylvania, 
and tobacco in Virginia. In the state 
of Franklin, now Tennessee, bacon, 

whiskey, brandy, linen, and the skins of wild animals were 
among the articles used for money; the law provided that 

the salary of 
every official 
from governor 
down should be 
paid in the skins 
of animals. 

Counterfeiting. 
— From the 
scarcity of smal« 
ler coins grew 
the custom of 
cutting larger 
coins into parts and passing the pieces as “change.” For 
instance, a Spanish dollar would be cut into two or four 
parts and the pieces circulated as “halves” or “quarters.” 


Pillory 



A Colonial Fire-Place 











182 HISTORY OP THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Counterfeits of foreign coins were numerous. In some places 
they were knowingly accepted and circulated, for the people 
could get no better money. The craftiness of the counter- 



A Dining-Room in a Virginia Mansion 


feiter imposed even upon the primitive currency of the state 
of Franklin. The skins of raccoons, to which the tails of 
otters had been sewed, were tied up in bundles and passed 
as otter skins. 

Topics and Questions 

1. How many states were effected by the new government when 
Washington became President? What population did the first census 
show? How was it distributed? Describe the “Far West” of Wash¬ 
ington’s time. 

2. Contrast agricultural conditions in the North and the South in 
1789. Why did the New Englander “take to the sea”? With what 
results? Account for manufactures being so few and so crude in the 
United States. Name and describe them. Tell about domestic handi¬ 
work. Describe the condition of jails. Why was barter safer than 
selling for such money as men had to accept in 1789 in the United States? 

Project Exercise 

Make a list of some of the implements and machines now used in 
farming. Contrast them with the implements that the farmer in 
Washington’s time used. 













Chapter xvi 

SOCIAL LIFE IN WASHINGTON'S TIME 

Life in the Cities. — In Washington’s time there was no 
great city in America. The largest was New York, with 
about thirty-three thousand inhabitants; next came Phila¬ 
delphia with thirty thousand; then Boston with eighteen 
thousand; and Charleston with sixteen thousand. The 
streets were narrow and dirty and ill-paved, or more often 
not paved at all. They were lighted with oil lamps. These 
(amps gave but a feeble light and were rarely used on rainy 
nights. The use of gas or electricity for lighting was un¬ 
heard of. In the houses candles were used. The common 
fuel for the household was wood. The stoves of the time 
Were so unsatisfactory that they were not much used, and 
the wood was burned in immense chimneys which let little 
heat and much smoke into the room. Coal was known to 
be in America, but it was not mined to any extent. Men 
little dreamed of the vast beds of the mineral which now 
make the United States the greatest coal producing country 
in the world. Charcoal was used as fuel in the blacksmith 
shops and foundries, and fires were started with flint and 
steel. Water was obtained from the town pump or from wells. 

Furniture. — The houses of the rich were well furnished. 
The massive colonial furniture, now so much valued, was 
imported from England; for as yet America could make 
only furniture of the cheap kinds. The finest china, silver, 
and glass appeared on the tables, while the quaint and 
stately “grandfather’s clock” stood in the hall. Tall can¬ 
delabra, for holding candles, were set on rollers so that 
they could be drawn from room to room. From the blaz¬ 
ing hearth flashed the huge, well-polished andirons of brass. 

Habits; Dress; Amusements. — The manners and cus¬ 
toms of the several sections still differed widely. The 

78 3 


184 HISTORY" OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

impress left upon each community by the early settlers was 
very noticeable. In Boston the influence of the Puritan 
lingered. While some of the inhabitants of that city at¬ 
tended “assemblies,” or balls, and gave elegant dinners, 
most of the Bostonians locked with disfavor upon amuse¬ 
ments of the gayer or more worldly sort. In the interior 
of New England Puritanism was even stronger. The New 
England farmer rarely read a book not of religious character; 
he was exceeding] j grave in his demeanor, and regarded 
jest and humor as unwholesome levity. The chief pleasures 
for the young were com huskings, quilting parties, and 
spinning matches. 

In New York many of the Dutch customs prevailed, and 
the city was still in some respects a Dutch town. The 
language of Holland was almost as common as English 
Signs over many of the stores were printed in Dutch, and 
sermons were sometimes delivered in that language. The 
fondness of the Dutch for elaborate celebrations of feast 
days, such as New Year’s Day, Easter, and Christmas, 
furnished many happy moments to old and young. 

Philadelphia was the 
richest and most fashion¬ 
able city in America, 
but side by side with 
pleasure and extrava¬ 
gance was the Quaker’s 
simple mode of life. 

The people of the 
South were particularly 
fond of sport. Horse 
racing, cock fighting, 
hunting, and dancing 
were the chief sources of amusement. The Southerner 
delighted in entertaining, and was noted for his hospitality. 
The ways of the Cavalier were prominent in Williamsburg, 
and the ways of the Huguenot in Charleston. 

The fashionable dress for a man consisted of a three* 7 



Harpsichord 


SOCIAL LIFE IN WASHINGTON’S TIME 


IBS 

cornered cocked hat, a long coat with large silver buttons, 
a fancy waistcoat, breeches that came only to the knees, 
striped stockings, and pointed shoes with large buckles. 
The hair was powdered and worn in a queue, and the face 
was clean shaven. The mustache and beard were thought 
fit only for barbarians. Women wore gowns of brilliant 
color and finest material, very high hats, lofty headdresses, 
hoops, and shoes with very high wooden heels. 

The spinet and the harpsichord were in general use by 
the upper class, but were slowly giving way to the piano. 
The cotillion, then a form of the quadrille, and the minuet 
were the popular dances. 

The Poorer Classes. — The day-laborer lived in the mean¬ 
est of houses and ate the coarsest food. It was all he could 
do to procure the necessaries of life for himself and family, 
for while wages were not half as much as they now are, the 
price of almost everything was relatively higher than now. 
Meat was a luxury which he seldom enjoyed. For lighting 
his house, he burned a piece of pine or a wick dipped in 
tallow. His clothes generally consisted of a 
flannel jacket, a checked shirt, and buckskin or 
leathern breeches. His wife and daughter 
dressed in homemade garments of the 
very cheapest quality. 

Frontier Life. — In the West, the 
people were leading the usual frontier life. 
They were busy clearing the forests and 
preparing the ground for cultivation, or 
trapping wild animals for valuable furs. 
They had crossed the mountains on foot or 
horseback, or had floated down the Ohio in 
boats, and had carried to their new homes 
little besides their trusty rifles, with which 
they shot game and sometimes warded off 
the attacks of Indians. 

Travel. — By this time the stagecoach had become quite 
common. The roads were miserable, and when covered by 



Frontiersman 



286 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


snow or mud they were almost impassable. None of the 
large streams were spanned by bridges; travelers crossed 
at fords or by ferries. Travel was so slow that it required 
more time to go from New York to Boston than it does now 
to cross the continent. A journey from one point to another 
on the coast or up and down the larger streams was generally 
made in small sailing vessels, known as packet sloops, but 
as this mode of travel depended on the weather, it was 
more uncertain than journeying by the stagecoach. 

The Inns. — Houses for public entertainment were called 
inns, taverns, and coffee houses, and nearly every establish¬ 
ment of this kind combined the purposes of hotel, restaurant. 



Old-Time Stage-Coach and Inn 


and barroom. The accommodation given the traveler was, 
as a rule, exceedingly poor. In the cities and towns these 
houses were the favorite resort of the citizens. They would 
meet in the public room during leisure hours to drink and 
play cards, for intemperance and gambling were then much 
more common among all classes than they are now. They 
would also gather there to discuss questions of the day. 
Speakers would address them, often with eloquence that 
would have graced the highest council chambers. 

Education. — Except in New England, New York, and 
South Carolina, schools were few. Even the best schools, 
which were in New England, were very inefficient. The 


SOCIAL LIFE IN WASHINGTON'S TIME 


187 


many conveniences now had for teaching were lacking. 
The old-fashioned text-books would cause the school boy 
or girl of the present day to wonder how knowledge could 
have been gained from them. The children sat on hard, 
uncomfortable benches and at desks of roughly hewn 
wood. The room was poorly lighted and poorly heated. 
Boys attended the school during two months of winter, 
and were taught by a man; and girls attended during 
two months of summer, and were taught by a woman. 

The colleges of the entire country could be counted almost 
on one’s fingers. They offered but one course of study. 
It led to the A. B. degree and was intended primarily to 
fit the student for a profession. Latin and Greek were 
stressed, though a little mathematics, rhetoric, logic and 
theology were taught. The study of astronomy and of 
natural philosophy was just being introduced. Knowledge 
of Latin was the standard for entrance and, as only a fair 
knowledge of the language was required, students then 
entered college at a much earlier age than now. Harvard, 
William and Mary, and Yale, were in the order named, the 
oldest colleges and they enjoyed a wide reputation. Among 
other educational institutions of Washington’s time that 
have since become well known are: Brown University, 
Dartmouth College, Williams College, and the University of 
Vermont, in New England; Columbia University, Prince¬ 
ton University, Union University and the University of 
Pennsylvania, in the Middle States; and Charleston Col¬ 
lege, the Universities of Georgia, North Carolina, and Ten¬ 
nessee, and Washington and Lee University, in the Southern 
States. 

Newspapers. — There were about forty newspapers, of 
which only four were issued daily. The newspapers con¬ 
tained little news, local or other, and were chiefly filled 
with advertisements and political and moral essays. A 
paper printed in New York would be nearly two weeks old 
before it reached Charleston. In the absence of newspapers, 
the sections kept in touch with one another through corre- 


188 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

spondence carried on by individuals. Almost every letter, 
whether of professional, business, or social nature, would tell 
what had been done by the legislature, what had been said 
by an orator in a great speech, or what was the sentiment of 
the neighborhood in regard to some question. 

Post Offices. — Post offices numbered less than one hun¬ 
dred, while to-day they number nearly one hundred thousand. 
There were no postage stamps nor envelopes, and the rate 
of postage was so high that a poor man could rarely indulge 
in the use of the mails. Even the rich man would gladly 
accept the services of some passing traveler for the trans¬ 
mission of his letters, not only to save the expense of 
postage, but because, as likely as not, there would be no 
post office in the place to which the letter was to be sent. 


Topics and Questions 

1. Show the relative and actual size of cities of the United States in 
in 1790. What were the means of lighting and heating houses? Picture 
the furniture of a house of that time. In what part of it would you 
find chairs and tables of domestic manufacture? Contrast the amuse¬ 
ments of various sections and various cities of the country. 

2. How would you expect to find the men of the Constitutional Con¬ 
vention dressed? Women at a ball in Philadelphia or Williamsburg? 
Tell about the daily life and dress of a day laborer. What made up a 
frontiersman’s life? 


Project Exercises 

1. What was the best way, in Washington’s time, to travel from 
Savannah to New York? Describe a journey from New York to 
Ohio. 

2. Contrast the schools, newspapers, and post offices of 1790 with 
those of the oresent time. 


CHAPTER XVII 


SETTING THE NEW GOVERNMENT IN MOTION 

Washington’s Inauguration. — George Washington, first 
President of the United States, took the oath of office on 
April 30, 1789, in New York, which was at that time the 
capital. The first Wednesday in March, which fell that 
year on the fourth, was the day set for the government to go 
into operation, but Senators and Representatives arrived so 



Washington taking the Oath as President, April 30, 1789 

late that it was April before Congress was organized. In 
recognition of the day originally set, Congress afterward fixed 
March 4 as the day for the beginning and ending of the 
terms of the President and Vice President and members of 
each house of Congress. 

Departments subordinate to the chief executive were 
established. The Secretary of State, the Secretary of the 
Treasury, and the Secretary of War constituted the first 

189 



































190 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

cabinet. 1 The Supreme Court and circuit and district courts 
were organized. 

The Union Completed. — North Carolina adopted the 
Constitution in 1789, and Rhode Island in 1790, completing 
the union of the original thirteen states. 

Financial Matters. — The new government was watched 
with much anxiety, for there were many who believed that 
the jealousies and conflicting interests of the states would 
prevent it from becoming permanent. That the new govern¬ 
ment had advantages was shown at the outset, when, for 

the purpose of raising a revenue, 
Congress levied a tariff — a tax 
on foreign products brought 
into the country for purpose of 
sale — and a tonnage, a tax on 
ships. Such taxes the Confed¬ 
eration had never been able to 
levy (see page 171). 

The debts contracted by the 
general government for carrying 
on the Revolutionary War 
amounted to about fifty-four 
million dollars. The debts 
contracted by the states for the 
same purpose amounted to 
about twenty-five million. Alexander Hamilton, as Secretary 
of the Treasury, proposed that the United States government 
assume these debts of the states and pay the whole debt of 
seventy-nine million. This plan Congress adopted. 

Hamilton’s financial scheme provided also that Congress 

1 The Constitution provided for departments subordinate to the 
chief executive, but made no provision for a cabinet. Washington 
began the custom of consulting the heads of departments about public 
affairs, and from this grew the cabinet. The following officers have 
been added to the cabinet since the administration of Washington: 
Secretary of the Navy; Attorney-General; Postmaster General; 
Secretary of the Interior; Secretary of Agriculture; Secretary of 
Commerce; Secretary of Labor. 



Alexander Hamilton 


SETTING THE NEW GOVERNMENT IN MOTION 191 



should establish a national bank, and such a bank was 
chartered with its chief office at Philadelphia. The United 
States became a stockholder of the bank. The purpose 
of the bank was to furnish a safe currency and one that 
would be uniform throughout the states. 

The effect of the financial measures was immediate. A 
government that could raise a large revenue by taxes, that 
could arrange to pay a debt of an amount enormous for a 
young republic, and could assure a safe currency, naturally 
gained the confidence of the people, and strengthened the 
sentiment for nationalism. Public credit was restored and 
commerce and business generally revived. 

Immigration. —People of the Old World, dissatisfied with 
the government under which they lived, were attracted by 
the freedom 
existing under 
our government. 

Immigration, 
that had been 
stopped by the 
war, again set in. 

Those who 
sought our 
shores at this 
time were chiefly 
English, Irish, 
and German. 

Sectional Dif¬ 
ferences. — The 
bill to assume 
the debts of the 
states was not 
passed without 
bringing out strongly the spirit of sectionalism which had 
shown itself in the Confederation. The New England states, 
owing a heavy debt, favored the assumption; most of the 
Southern states, having paid their debts or else owing only 


Congress Hall, Philadelphia 
National Capitol 1790-1800 





192 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


small amounts that could readily be paid, contended that 
each state should pay its own debt. Besides, it was feared 
that assumption of the state debts might increase the influ¬ 
ence of the general government at the expense of the several 
states. Meanwhile the question of a permanent location 
for the capital was debated, and for a time it seemed that 
the South would succeed both in securing the capital and in 
defeating the bill for assumption. Sectional spirit grew 
strong, and members from New England declared that their 
states would secede from the Union if the South prevailed. 

In the end the sections compromised. Some of the 
members of Congress from Pennsylvania and the South 
voted for the general government's assuming the state 
debts, in return for which a number of Northern members, 
sufficient to procure its passage, voted for a bill providing 
that the seat of government should be at Philadelphia for 
ten years, and at the end of that time be located per¬ 
manently on the Potomac. 

Just at this time, too, Congress was 
brought face to face with the question 
of slavery. Many petitions were 
presented asking for the abolition of 
slavery and the stopping of the impor¬ 
tation of foreign slaves. After a 
heated debate Congress dismissed the 
petitions with the declaration that it 
could not stop the slave trade before 
the year 1808, and that it had no right 
to abolish slavery in the states. 
Political Parties. — The questions 
of government caused a division of the people into two 
political parties. One party, called the Federalist, had been 
in favor of the assumption of the state debts and the charter¬ 
ing of the national bank, because it believed in the United 
States having a strong central government. This party 
insisted upon the doctrine of implied powers—that Congress, 
in order to carry into effect the powers granted it, had the 



A House-Slave of 
Washington’s Day 







SETTING THE NEW GOVERNMENT IN MOTION 193 

right to pass laws not expressly provided for in the Constitu¬ 
tion. Alexander Hamilton was the leader of this party. 

The other contended that the rights of the states should 
be guarded; and denied to the government of the United 
States all power not expressly granted it by the Constitution. 
This party, known as the Republican, recognized Thomas 
Jefferson as its leader. The Republican party is now known 
as the Democratic party, and should not be confounded with 
the Republican party of to-day. Party spirit soon grew bitter 
and threats of breaking up the Union were common. In 
the heat of party strife even Washington received abuse. 

Trouble with the Indians. — Canada, on the north of the 
United States, was a British province; Florida on the 
south and Louisiana on the west were Spanish provinces. 
Great Britain and Spain did not wish the United States to 
develop the country between the Alleghany Mountains and 
the Mississippi River, fearing that the young republic 
might grow too strong. To prevent further emigration of 
Americans to the West, British and Spanish agents tried to 
persuade the Indians in that region not to make treaties for 
selling their lands to the United States. Despite the in¬ 
trigues of the Spaniards, the government of the United 
States was able to make treaties that preserved peace for a 
time with the Indians in the South and Southwest. The 
government was not so successful against the British in 
the Northwest. The British still held some of the military 
posts in that region, asserting as a reason that the Americans 
would not pay the debts which they contracted with British 
merchants before the Revolutionary War and which the 
treaty of peace had agreed should be paid. From these 
posts the British had easy access to the Indians of the North¬ 
west. They persuaded the Indian tribes which had not 
joined in the cession of lands to the Confederation (see 
page 168) not to make treaties. These tribes began to 
wage war upon the settlers. Two armies sent against 
them were defeated, but Washington sent a third army 
under General Anthony Wayne, of Revolutionary fame. 


194 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


who completely subdued the Indians in a battle fought near 
the Maumee River, in Ohio, in 1794. The tribes then agreed 
to a treaty, the government buying their claims to lands. 

The Whiskey Insurrection. — Congress had placed a tax 
on whiskey. Farmers and distillers in western Pennsyl¬ 
vania, where the manufacture of whiskey was the chief 
industry, thought the tax unjust and prepared to resist its 
collection. Washington issued a proclamation calling upon 
the insurgents to submit to the law; when they showed no 
disposition to obey, he sent against them (1794) militia 
drawn from nearby states. Upon the approach of this 
force the insurgents submitted. When insurrections oc¬ 
curred during the Confederation, the general government 
had no power to suppress them (see page 167); the prompt¬ 
ness with which the government under the Constitution 
suppressed the Whiskey Insurrection increased the respect 
of the people for the new government and its laws. 

Topics and Questions 

1. When, where, and how was the first President inaugurated? 
What departments were first established to aid the President? What 
offices have since been added to the Cabinet? 

2. How did Congress raise money to run the new government? 
What was Hamilton’s plan for paying the public debt; for furnishing 
a uniform currency? What was the effect of his financial methods? 

3. What attracted immigrants to the United States? From what 
countries did most of them come at this time? What caused differences 
of feeling between the sections to arise? How was the Federal capital 
located by a compromise? 

4. What stand did the first Congress take on the slavery question? 
State the views of the two great political parties in 1789-1800. 

5. How were Indian troubles settled in 1794? Describe the 
Whiskey Insurrection of the same year. 

Project Exercises 

1. Write a brief account of the facts of Washington’s life, and 
add an estimate of his character. (See biography in appendix.) 

2. Point out some of the things that the new government did and 
that the government under the Confederation could not do. 

Important Date: 

1789. Beginning of the government under the Constitution. 


CHAPTER XVIII 

HOW FOREIGN AFFAIRS ENTANGLED AMERICA 

Conditions in France. — France still lived under an 
autocratic government. The king made the laws and levied 
the taxes; he even had the power to throw a subject into 
prison without a trial and to keep him there as long as it 
suited his royal pleasure. The system of taxation was 
abominable. The French people were divided into three 
classes — the clergy, the nobility, and the common people. 
Although the Church and the nobility owned much land and 
other property, yet they were exempted from so much of 
the taxation that three fourths of the cost of the govern¬ 
ment was paid by the common people. The burden upon 
them was so heavy that, after they had paid their taxes, 
the laborer and the peasant had little left. Yet only in 
England was the working man of Europe better off than in 
France; in most other countries the peasant was still a serf. 
The masses of France were discontented because they had 
become more intelligent than serfs and realized the injustice 
of their lot. 

The government of France, loaded down with debt, had 
reached the verge of bankruptcy. A part of the debt was 
due to money borrowed to assist the Americans in their war 
for independence, but by far the greater part of it was due 
to the many wars waged for the balance of power and to the 
extravagance of the royal court. 

The French Revolution. — The king, Louis XVI — the 
king who made the alliance with the United States — was 
a well-meaning man, although at the head of an absolute 
monarchy. Seeing that the condition of neither the people 
nor the government could be bettered under the existing 
tax system, he called together the States-General, a great 
assembly composed of representatives from the three classes, 

195 


196 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

clergy, nobility, and commons. The States-General met 
in Paris in 1789, the year Washington was inaugurated as 
our President. 1 

When the commoners found that they were powerless to 
make the clergy and nobles pay a proper share of the taxes, 
they withdrew from the States-General, organized themselves 
into the National Assembly, and went to work to reform the 
government in their own way. Their purpose was merely to 
give the people a share in the government without overturn¬ 
ing the monarchy; but the king, becoming persuaded that 
too much of his power was being taken away from him, 
attempted to break up the Assembly. Immediately a mob 
arose in Paris, which in its indignation destroyed, on July 14, 
1789, the Bastille, an ancient prison in whose dungeons kings 
had arbitrarily confined so many of their subjects. 2 The 
disorder spread to the rural districts, where mobs burned the 
chateaux, or homes of the nobles. Radical men got in power 
and, in 1792, proclaimed France a republic. The king was 
executed on the charge of scheming to get other monarchs 
to send armies to his assistance. 

Then followed the “Reign of Terror,” when opponents of 
the republic in various parts of France were massacred and 
persons in Paris under the slightest suspicion of being hostile 
to the new government were put to death by the guillotine. 
The “Reign of Terror” was only an unfortunate phase of the 
revolution — the revolution itself, in the end, made France 
a democracy. The orgy was brought about by men of most 
violent type gaining temporary control of the government, 
and it lasted about ten months in 1793-1794. Shocking 
as was the spilling of innocent blood, it should be remem¬ 
bered that despotic monarchs, before and since, have for 

1 The States-General was the parliament of France, but the kings of 
that country had so long ruled by their own will that it had not pre¬ 
viously been called together since 1614. 

2 July 14, the anniversary of the destruction of the Bastille, is cele¬ 
brated by Frenchmen as the birthday of their republic, just as the 
Americans celebrate July 4. 


HOW FOREIGN AFFAIRS ENTANGLED AMERICA 197 

selfish purposes caused more persons to be killed in a single 
battle than were put to death during the “Reign of Terror.” 

France at War with Other Powers. — The other monarchs 
of Europe were horrified at the execution of the French king. 
The French republic, believing from the hostile attitude of 
neighboring countries that its existence was in danger, had 
declared war upon Austria, Prussia, Spain, and Great 
Britain. While France was in the throes of the “Reign of 
Terror,” foreign armies invaded French territory, but as 
soon as the dark days were over, the armies of the republic 
drove the invaders across the borders and carried the war 
into the enemy country. 

The United States and France. — The people of America 
sympathized at first almost universally with the movement 
to make France a republic. When the revolution fell into 
violent hands sentiment in America divided. The division 
was largely along party lines. The Federalists, representing 
the conservative opinion of the country, lost confidence in 
the revolution and no longer gave it their sympathy; while 
the Republicans (Democrats), representing more nearly the 
popular feeling, looked beyond the violence and saw in the 
revolution the struggle of the French people for liberty. 

Sympathizers with France were active. They held great 
feasts, at which speeches were made eulogizing the French 
people and toasts were drunk to the French republic. They 
displayed in public places the tri-colored flag of the new 
republic by the side of the Stars and Stripes, wore in their 
hats tri-colored cockades, and sang the songs of the French 
revolution. At mass meetings throughout the country they 
demanded that the United States aid France. They urged 
that the treaties made with France at the time of the Ameri¬ 
can Revolution had placed the United States under obliga¬ 
tions to help that country; and declared that, over and 
above any sense of treaty obligation, it was the duty of our 
democratic country to go to war in aid of an old ally in its 
fight against monarchy. Washington, not believing that we 
were called upon to help France, would not give way to the 


19B HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

clamor. He issued a proclamation declaring the United 
States neutral and warned Americans from giving aid to 
either side. On account of the stand Washington took, 
sympathizers with France heaped much abuse upon him. 

“ Citizen Genet.” — While French feeling was running 
high, Genet — Citizen Genet, as he was called 1 — landed 
at Charleston, having come to America as minister from 
France. In nearly every town through which he passed on 
his way overland to Philadelphia, which was still the seat of 
government, he was given an ovation. Believing his recep¬ 
tion an evidence that the people would side with him against 
the stand their own government had taken, he endeavored, 
in the face of the President’s proclamation of neutrality, to 
persuade them to aid France. He sent out privateers from 
American ports to prey upon the commerce of Great Britain 
and other nations, and he schemed to attack, with the help 
of Americans, the Spanish provinces of Louisiana and 
Florida. He was even disrespectful to the President him¬ 
self. Genet overreached his mark. At Washington’s demand 
the French government recalled him. The impudence of a 
foreigner’s interfering in our affairs cooled the ardor of the 
French sympathizers. Most of them came in time to realize 
that they had been wrong in opposing so strongly the posi¬ 
tion of our government. 

Troubles with Great Britain. —While the American gov¬ 
ernment was with difficulty keeping the people from siding 
with France, the British were making the task harder. 
They continued to cause irritation by holding the forts on 
the northwestern border. They also gave trouble in regard 
to trade; they closed their West Indian ports to American 
vessels, thus depriving the Americans of a trade that had 
always been profitable; they stopped American ships trad- 

1 The French republic, in its desire to destroy every vestage of the 
monarchy, abolished all titles. Even the terms of polite address, 
Monsieur, Madame, and Mademoiselle, were abolished. A man was 
was to be addressed as “ Citizen ” and a woman as “ Citizeness ”— 
hence, “ Citizen Genet. ” 


HOW FOREIGN AFFAIRS ENTANGLED AMERICA 199 


ing with France, boarded them, and seized goods which 
were not contraband of war , 1 and in many ways injured 
the commerce of the United States. 

Impressment. — They claimed the right to stop vessels 
and to take from them seamen of British birth and force 
them to serve in the British navy. This was known as 
the right of impressment, and was based on the British 
doctrine that a man could not renounce allegiance to his 
native land, or, as the phrase went, “Once an Englishman 
always an Englishman.” Americans, however, claimed that 
a foreign-born person became, through naturalization, as 
much a citizen of a country as a native. Not only were 
British-born seamen impressed, but many sailors of American 
birth were carried off under pretense that they were British 
subjects. These unjust acts caused the American people 
more than ever to feel resent¬ 
ment against Great Britain. 

Washington, desiring to pre¬ 
serve peace, sent John Jay, the 
Chief Justice, to England to 
negotiate a settlement of the 
questions at issue. 

Jay’s Treaty. — In 1794 Jay 
made a treaty by which Great 
Britain was to give up the 
forts in the Northwest, while 
the United States was to guar¬ 
antee the payment of certain 
of the debts owing to Great After the portrait by Gilbert Stuart 
Britain. The treaty met with 

much opposition in America, because Great Britain had 
not agreed to open satisfactorily the West Indian trade 
or to stop seizing American goods or to give up her claim to 
the right of impressment — the three matters about which 

1 Under the law of nations arms and supplies of some other kinds* 
sent by a neutral people to a people engaged in war. are called contra* 
band and are liable to capture. 



200 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Americans were mostly concerned. However, the Senate 
ratified the treaty, which was probably the best that could 
have been made under the circumstances. It averted, for 
a time, war with Great Britain. 

John Adams, President; Troubles with France. — Wash¬ 
ington having been twice elected President, declined to 
serve a third term, and John Adams, of Massachusetts, a 
Federalist, was elected to succeed him. When Adams 

assumed the Presidency in 1797, 
the complications growing out 
of the European situation had 
shifted from danger of war with 
Great Britain to danger of war 
with France. 

The French republic had 
already forced peace upon 
Prussia and Spain, and only in 
this yekr (1797) Napoleon 
Bonaparte by a brilliant 
campaign brought Austria to 
terms. The French government 
was displeased with Jay’s treaty, 
claiming that it gave Great 
Britain advantages over France. It announced that the 
French navy would treat the commerce of a neutral country 
in the same manner as that country allowed Great Britain 
to treat its commerce; and, thereupon French war vessels 
began plundering American commerce. Envoys whom 
President Adams sent to France to effect a settlement of 
the trouble were told by agents of the Directory—a body 
of five men who were then at the head of the French 
government—that the United States must pay them money 
tor peace. In the report of the matter to Congress, the 
letters X.Y.Z. were substituted for the names of the French 
agents, and from this circumstance it became known as the 
“X.Y.Z. affair.” 

So outraged did the Americans feel at the suggestion that 



John Adams 


HOW FOREIGN AFFAIRS ENTANGLED AMERICA 20I 


they pay French officials for their rights that the govern¬ 
ment immediately took steps for war. Washington was 
placed at the head of the army, and the commanders of 
the ships composing the little navy were instructed to 
seize French war vessels. Some small naval engage¬ 
ments, in which the Americans won victories, occurred in 
1799-1800. 

Meanwhile the Directory proving weak, Napoleon Bona¬ 
parte, the military leader, had placed himself at the head of 
the French republic with the title of First Consul. Napo¬ 
leon, seeing that the Americans would defend their rights, 
came to an agreement with the United States. By a treaty 
made in 1800, France acknowledged practically every com¬ 
mercial right of America that Great Britain denied. Soon 
afterward Napoleon made a treaty with Great Britain, the 
sole remaining antagonist of France, and, for a while, the 
whole world was at peace. 

The Alien and Sedition Laws. — In the discussion of public 
questions, many of the writings that appeared in the Ameri¬ 
can newspapers and pamphlets were slanderous, coarse, and 
violent, one political party being as guilty as the other. 
The Federalists held that the publications of their opponents 
tended to lessen the influence of the government and force 
the country into war with Great Britain. Besides, many of 
the writers for the Republican (Democratic) party were 
foreigners, and the Federalists thought the foreign element 
dangerous to the country. Therefore in 1798 Congress, 
in which the Federalists had a majority, passed the Alien 
and Sedition Acts. 

The Alien Law gave the President power to send out of 
the country all foreigners whom he considered dangerous 
to the peace and safety of the United States. The Sedition 
Law condemned to fine and imprisonment any person con¬ 
victed of having written or published a false, scandalous, 
or malicious statement against the government, Congress, 
or the President. Persons were actually sent to jail for 
writing articles criticizing the administration. 


202 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


The Virginia and the Kentucky Resolutions. — The 

Republicans (Democrats) were loud in their condemnation 
of the Alien and Sedition Laws as unconstitutional. They 
asserted that the Alien Law denied the right of trial by jury 
and violated the rights of the states to admit into their 
territory whom they pleased, and that the Sedition Law took 
away freedom of speech and liberty of the press. The 
legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky passed resolutions 
which have become famous. Each set of resolutions pro¬ 
claimed the Union to be only a compact between the states; 



Washington from the Potomac in 1801 
From an engraving by R. Phillips 


and asserted the right of the states to judge of the constitu¬ 
tionality of the acts of the general government, and to 
nullify those considered unconstitutional. Virginia strength¬ 
ened her military forces and made ready for secession. 
The resolutions are important because they had great in¬ 
fluence upon the doctrines of nullification and secession. 1 

Washington Becomes the Capital. — In accordance with 
an act of the first Congress (see page 192) the seat of govern¬ 
ment was removed in 1800 to a point on the Potomac River. 
On the site selected a city had been laid out and called 
Washington. The District of Columbia, in which Washing¬ 
ton is situated, was ceded to the general government by 
Maryland. 

1 Nullification: The action of a state to prevent the enforcement, 
tvithin its bounds of a law of the United States. Secession: The with 
drawal of a state from the Union. 






HOW FOREIGN AFFAIRS ENTANGLED AMERICA 203 

John Marshall. — In 1801 John Marshall, of Virginia, 
was appointed Chief Justice, 
jurists of the world. His 
decisions on questions relating 
to the Constitution did much 
to strengthen the view that 
the Constitution gives the 
United States the right to 
make of itself a strong govern¬ 
ment. He held the office of 
Chief Justice until his death 
in 1835. 

Jefferson Elected Presi¬ 
dent. — In 1800 occurred a 
presidential election. John 
Adams was again the candi¬ 
date of the Federalists for 
President, while Thomas Jefferson was the candidate of 
the Republicans (Democrats). The campaign was very 
bitter. The Federalists charged that the Republicans 
(Democrats) were anarchists who would destroy all gov¬ 
ernment; the Republicans (Democrats) charged that the 
Federalists were aristocrats who desired to convert the 
United States into a monarchy. Both charges were, of 
course, untrue; yet the Federalists had lost public favor 
because of their openly expressed distrust of the ability of 
the masses to govern themselves and because of the 
unpopular laws they had passed, especially the Alien and 
Sedition Laws. Jefferson was elected, and his triumph 
was regarded as a victory of the people. 1 The Federalist 

1 Under the Constitution as it then stood each elector voted for 
two persons, the one receiving the highest vote becoming President 
and the one receiving the next highest, Vice President. In the election 
of 1800 Aaron Burr, of New, York was the candidate for Vice President 
on the ticket with Jefferson. The Republican (Democratic) electors 
cast an equal number of votes for Jefferson and Burr. According to 
the Constitution, the House of Representatives had to decide which of 
them should be President. The House, carrying out the intention of 


He was one of the greatest 



John Marshall 


204 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

party should be held in grateful remembrance because it 
was the statesmanship of that party that successfully 
launched the new government. 

Jefferson was very simple in his own habits, and he be¬ 
lieved that the government should be conducted on the 
simplest and most economical lines. He looked upon 
large armies and navies as a menace to the liberties of the 
people, and as an unnecessary expense. Despite the fact 
that trouble was liable again to arise with European powers, 
his political followers, who controlled Congress, reduced 
the military and naval forces which the Federalists had 
strengthened when war with France was threatened. 

Albert Gallatin. — Jefferson was consistent in his efforts 
to economize, for he reduced expenses in all departments. 
He was fortunate in having the assistance of an able Sec¬ 
retary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin, of Pennsylvania. 
Gallatin wished also to pay the national debt. He devised 
a plan whereby the taxes could be lowered, and at the same 
time expenses be cut so that a surplus would yet be left 
each year in the treasury to be used for paying the debt. 
He succeeded so well that, with lowered taxes, he reduced 
the debt, in twelve years, from $87,000,000 to $45,000,000, 
Gallatin was one of the greatest financiers of his time, 
Hamilton was better fitted for building up a treasury, 
but Gallatin was his superior in taking care of it through 
methods of economy. 

Purchase of Louisiana. — It will be remembered that, 
while the English colonies were yet struggling for a foothold 
on the Atlantic coast, the French had settled Louisiana; 
and that at the end of the French and Indian War, in 1763, 
France had ceded to Spain as the province of Louisiana 
the territory extending a great distance westward from the 

the people, elected Jefferson. The Vice Presidency, of course, went 
to Burr. The tie vote caused the adoption of an amendment to the 
Constitution, which provides that each elector shall vote for one 
person for President and for another person for Vice President. This 
is the law to-day. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON 
















































































HOW FOREIGN AFFAIRS ENTANGLED AMERICA 205 

Mississippi River. In the extreme south end of this im¬ 
mense domain, Louisiana occupied both banks of the river 
and included the city of New Orleans, which is on the east 
bank. Spain therefore controlled the navigation of the 
river. A treaty had been made with Spain whereby citi¬ 
zens of the United States were granted free use of the Missis¬ 
sippi and the use of New Orleans as a place to deposit their 
goods. In those days transportation on land was very 
difficult, and the Western people found it almost impossible 
to carry their produce across the mountains to the Eastern 



states. Instead they floated it down the river and deposited 
it at New Orleans, there to await some ocean ship to take 
it to the Atlantic states or to the West Indies. 

In 1800, as part of a plan to create a French colonial 
empire, Napoleon, the First Consul, persuaded Spain to 
cede Louisiana back to France; and Napoleon prepared 
to send over a large army to occupy the province. The 
Spanish officer in charge of New Orleans closed the port to 
Americans. The Westerners would have gone to war with 
the mightiest nation of Europe rather than lose the use of 
the Mississippi. Jefferson realized the danger of permitting 
so strong a power as France to control the great waterway 
to the sea, and offered to buy New Orleans and enough of 









206 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


the territory to give us control of the river. War clouds 
were again hanging over Napoleon. He needed money and 
feared that Great Britain would seize the territory; he 
therefore sold to the United States, in 1803, not a portion 
but the whole of Louisiana. The price paid was about 
fifteen million dollars. 

Extent of the New Territory. — The new territory stretched 
so far westward from the Mississippi that its acquisition 
more than doubled the area of the United States. Its 
vastness can be appreciated by consulting the map facing 
pages 388-389. So little was known of the new possession 
that the government sent out expeditions to explore it. 
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark went up the Missouri 
River, crossed the Rocky Mountains, traversed the region 
known as the Oregon country, floated down the Columbia 
River to its mouth, and gazed upon the Pacific Ocean. 
Lewis and Clark were the first white men to cross the 
American continent within the limits of what is now the 
United States. They were absent about two years and 
brought back much valuable information. 1 

The Oregon Country. — The far distant Oregon country 
was not a part of the Louisiana Purchase. The United 
States and Great Britain both laid claim to it. For the 
present there was too much unoccupied land east of the 
Mississippi awaiting the emigrant for him to give much 
thought to the distant Louisiana country or the even more 

1 Aaron Burr, while still Vice President, killed Alexander Hamilton, 
in 1804, in a duel growing out of politics. Burr was now a ruined 
man. He had never possessed the entire confidence of the people, and 
from this time on was regarded by most persons as a criminal. Later 
he was accused of a plot against the Union. Though he led an armed 
expedition down the Mississippi River, exactly what his scheme was 
has never become known. It has always been believed by many that 
he intended to form another government, with himself at its head, in 
Mexico or some of the western states and the newly acquired Louisiana 
territory, or partly in Mexico and partly in this country. He was 
arrested and tried on the charge of treason. There was not sufficient 
evidence of guilt and he was acquitted. 


Longitude West 97 from Greenwich 



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HOW FOREIGN AFFAIRS ENTANGLED AMERICA 207 

distant Oregon country. While years had to pass before 
settlers would develop the wonderful resources of the far 
West, fur traders, both American and British, were at¬ 
tracted to Oregon, where the reports of Lewis and Clark 
showed that a profitable trade in furs and skins could be 
had only for the seeking. Stations for the fur trade were 
established in Oregon by Americans, but the British estab¬ 
lished the greater number. . 



Astoria in 1811 

The American fur traders’ post of the Oregon country 


Topics and Questions 

1. Describe the power of the king of France. Describe the condition 
of the common people of that country. Why did the king call together 
the States-General? How was the National Assembly formed? What 
was its purpose? 

2. Give an account of the French Revolution. Describe the effect 
of the French Revolution upon America. Tell about Washington’s 
neutrality proclamation. Who was “Citizen Genet,” and what did 
he attempt to do? 

3. How did the interference of Great Britain with American com¬ 
merce make it harder for America to keep her citizens neutral? What 
was the purpose and what were the terms of Jay’s treaty? Define 
impressment, contraband, embargo, and privateer. 

4. What French general became famous in 1797? Give several 
reasons why John Adams was in a difficult position when he became 
President in 1797. Why did the Americans feel outraged over the 
X. Y Z. affair? Explain how Napoleon Bonaparte came to be at the 









208 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


head of the French republic. What treaty did Napoleon make with 
America in 1800? What treaty did he soon after make with Great 
Britain? 

5. What ideas and conditions led Congress to pass the Alien and 
Sedition Acts? Define each carefully. On what grounds were the 
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions passed? What effect did these 
Resolutions have? 

6. When did Washington become the capital? What is the District 
of Columbia? Who was John Marshall? What was his chief work? 

7. What beliefs influenced the presidential election of 1800? What 
change was made in the Constitution relating to the election of the 
President and Vice President? How did Jefferson and his followers 
look upon large armies and navies? Tell all you can about Albert 
Gallatin. 

8. Why did the United States buy and why did Napoleon sell the 
Louisiana Territory? How did the United States come to realize 
the great size of the Louisiana Purchase? How did Aaron Burr lose the 
confidence of the American prople? Was he guilty? Tell about the 
Oregon country. 


Project Exercises 

1. Compare the American Revolution and the French Revolution. 
Were they fought for the same principle? Had the American people 
been treated as tyrannically as the French? 

2. Write a brief account of the life and services of Thomas Jefferson 
before he became President (see biography in appendix). 

Important Dates: 

1789. Beginning of the French Revolution. 

1794. Jay’s Treaty 

1800. Jefferson Elected President. ; 

1803. Purchase of Louisiana. 


CHAPTER XIX 

THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL RIGHTS 

Emperor Napoleon I. — Napoleon Bonaparte for fifteen 
years controlled France and dominated continental Europe. 
At the commencement of the French Revolution he was 
only twenty years old and was then a lieutenant of artil¬ 
lery; for his services in the army of the republic he rose 
to the rank of general. The brilliancy of his campaign 
against Austria (see page 200) 
made Napoleon the foremost 
general of France. Every 
power of Europe except Great 
Britain succumbed, sooner or 
later, to his military prowess. 

In his whole career Napoleon 
was guided solely by his ambi¬ 
tion. He was willful and 
unscrupulous; he treated his 
enemies cruelly, and with cold 
hearted indifference he saw his 
troops slaughtered in battle 
that he might gain his selfish 
aims. Yet, his victories made 
him the idol of his soldiers. Napoleon Bonaparte 

The failure of the govern- After the portrait by Paul Delaroche 
ment of the Directory gave 

Napoleon the opportunity to carry out his long cherished 
desire to rule France. The people, weary of feeble and 
changing governments, were ready to accept a strong ruler. 
With the support of the army it was easy for him to seize 
the reins of government and have himself made First Consul. 
As First Consul Napoleon ruled as tyrannically as any king, 
in fact, he was a monarch in all except name. He coveted 

209 






210 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

the glamor of the name of monarch; so, in 1804, he caused 
the republic to be abolished and had himself proclaimed 
Emperor of the French. 

The Victory of Trafalgar. — The new emperor’s ambition 
soared beyond ruling France; he dreamed of a world empire 
in which the monarch of every nation would bow to his will. 
His aggressions brought on war once more with Great 
Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia. He quickly crushed 
Austria and Prussia and forced Russia to make peace. 
Again Great Britain was left alone to battle against the 
would-be world conqueror. 

Napoleon’s successes on land were offset by a telling 
victory that Great Britain won on the sea. Lord Nelson, 
commanding the British fleet, practically destroyed the 
French and Spanish fleets in a battle off Cape Trafalgar, 
Spain, in 1805. 

Effect of Trafalgar upon America. — The battle of Traf¬ 
algar, one of the greatest naval victories in the history of 

Great Britain, had a direct 
effect upon America. On ac¬ 
count of the war the carrying 
trade of the world had passed 
to the neutral ships of America 
and one or two of the minor 
states of Europe. Great 
Britain, wishing to weaken the 
power of Napoleon by shutting 
off the trade of France with 
neutral countries, in 1806 

declared many European ports 
in a state of blockade. At 

_ „ once the emperor retaliated 

Lord Nelson , , . . T , , ,, 

by declaring the ports ot the 

British Isles closed. As the ports of colonies and allies were 

included, trade with nearly the whole world was forbidden 

by one belligerent or the other. 

Of course there was no actual blockade, for neither power 




THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL RIGHTS 2X1 


had enough war vessels to make such a blockade possible. 
A proclamation, declaring a port blockaded that is not 
blockaded in fact, is called a “paper” blockade and is not 
binding upon other nations; yet these unlawful measures 
had a far-reaching effect. The navy of each nation confis¬ 
cated, wherever found, the cargoes of neutral ships bound for 
the enemy’s ports. Great Britain, made mistress of the 
sea by the victory of Trafalgar, scoured the ocean; the loss 
to American commerce from British seizures was enormous. 
France, with her navy almost destroyed at Trafalgar, could 
not do so much damage. Consequently, feeling in America 
was stronger against Great Britain than against France. 

The “Leopard” and the “Chesapeake.” — Impressment 
of seamen by the British went on more actively than ever. 
In 1807, the British naval vessel Leopard fired upon the 
American naval vessel Chesapeake , off the coast of the United 
States, and, as the Chesapeake was unprepared for battle, 
compelled it to surrender. The attack was made because 
the American commander refused to give up members of 
his crew who, it was alleged, had deserted from the British 
navy. American seamen were killed and those charged 
with desertion were carried off by the British ship. The 
American people were indignant that one of their naval 
vessels should be attacked and boarded. 

The Long Embargo. — War with Great Britain seemed 
near at hand, but Jefferson wished to avoid it if possible. 
In 1807 Congress passed, at the President’s request, an 
embargo act, which forbade American ships to leave port 
for foreign countries. It was thought that the loss of sup¬ 
plies from America would induce Great Britain and France 
to rescind their hostile measures against neutral commerce, 
but the hope was in vain. The embargo, by keeping 
American commerce off the seas, did what the belligerents 
had endeavored to do with their paper blockade, while 
it seriously injured business at home. Ships lay idle at 
the wharves and trade became stagnant. Great distress 
followed. 


212 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

New England, where commerce was still the chief in¬ 
dustry, suffered most. There, more than anywhere else, 
the Embargo Act was unpopular; and there, more than 
anywhere else, it was evaded. It was derisively called the 
“O Grab Me” act, a name found by spelling “embargo” 
backwards. Federalism was still strong in New England, 
and the Federalists continued to be more favorably disposed 
toward the British as against the French. They asserted 
that the embargo was designed to provoke Great Britain 
to war. 

Secession Feeling in New England. — When Congress 
passed a law to compel observance of the embargo, loud 
protests were made in New England against the so-called 
Force Act. Prominent officials refused to obey the law, 
or encouraged the people to evade it. Town meeting after 
town meeting condemned the law by resolutions. Secession 

was openly threatened. 
The legislatures of Massa¬ 
chusetts and Connecticut 
proclaimed the right of 
nullifying the law. John 
Quincy Adams informed the 
administration at Washing¬ 
ton that there was a plan 
in New England to nullify 
the Embargo Act and to 
secede and form a union 
with Great Britain. In 1809 
the Embargo Act was 
repealed, and the danger of 
disunion passed. 

Non-Intercourse Act. — 
In place of the embargo, 
Congress passed a Non-intercourse Act, which prohibited 
trade with Great Britain or France or their colonies, and left 
Americans free to trade with other countries. The act also 
provided that trade should be renewed with either Great 



James Madison 

After the Gilbert Stuart portrait, 
Bowdoin College 


THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL RIGHTS 


213 


Britain or France when either revoked its measures injurious 
to American commerce. 

After Jefferson had served two terms as President, James 
Madison, of Virginia, succeeded him. President Madison 
continued the attempts to bring Great Britain and France 
to terms. Soon after his inauguration, in 1809 Congress 
repealed the Non-intercourse Act, but declared that if 
either Great Britain or France should withdraw its objection¬ 
able measures, the law would be renewed against the other. 

The administration was artfully led to believe that Napo¬ 
leon had revoked his decrees so far as they applied to America, 
and intercourse with Great Britain was again forbidden in 
1811. This caused the British to prey even more upon 
American commerce and the Americans to feel deeper 
resentment against them. 

Affair of the “ Little Belt.” Battle of Tippecanoe. — There 
seemed no honorable way for averting war with Great 
Britain, and, in 1811, two events occurred that embittered 
the Americans against that country. An American war 
vessel, the President , and a British war vessel, the Little 
Belt , met in battle outside Chesapeake Bay. The British 
vessel, much the inferior, was badly worsted. 

In the meantime, Indian tribes in the Northwest, under 
the famous warrior Tecumseh, formed a confederacy for 
the purpose of attacking the settlers. General William 
Henry Harrison defeated the Indians in a severe battle 
near Tippecanoe Creek, in the present state of Indiana. 
It was believed by many that British agents had incited 
the uprising. 

War against Great Britain Declared. — Most of the 
older members of the Republican (Democratic) majority in 
Congress were still reluctant to go to war, but the leader¬ 
ship had passed from them to the younger men. The 
new leaders were so strongly in favor of hostilities against 
Great Britain that Madison felt compelled to recommend 
war. Congress declared war in 1812. On account of the 
date it is generally known as the “War of 1812.” 


214 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


There was utter lack of preparation for the conflict. 
The Republican (Democratic) party, the party that insisted 
upon the war, had in previous years so reduced the defenses 
of the country that, when war was declared, the army con¬ 
sisted of only about 
ten thousand men, 
poorly equipped and 
poorly orpanized and 
commanded by in¬ 
experienced, or in 
many cases, incom¬ 
petent officers. It 
was planned to in¬ 
crease the military 
force by enlisting 
volunteers for the 
regular army and by 
using militia from the 
different states. 
Volunteers were slow 
in coming forward and militia, it was found, could not 
always be depended upon. Only five ships were ready for sea. 

Danger lurked on the frontiers. The Indian tribes in the 
Northwest had banded together to fight on the side of the 
British; those in the Southwest were ready to go on 
the warpath as soon as the British should give them aid. 

New England Opposed to the War. — There was oppo¬ 
sition to the war in New England, the section devoted to 
commerce. Although the war was waged for the protection 
of commerce, the New Englanders held it to be unwise. 
They argued that as commerce had been damaged by the 
embargo more than by the depredations of foreign nations, 
it would be completely destroyed by the war. They again 
talked of secession. When news of the declaration of war 
reached New England, bells were tolled, business was sus¬ 
pended, and flags were lowered to half-mast. The war 
was condemned in town meetings, and denounced by the 



American fleet English fleet 

Relative size of the American 
and English Fleets 







THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL RIGHTS 215 

press and the pulpit. When the President, in accordance 
with an act of Congress, called on the states for militia, the 
governors of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island 
refused to obey, claiming that the Constitution gave the 
United States no right to make such a demand. In this 
act of nullification the governments of these states sustained 
their governors. 

Reverses on Land. — America’s plan in the first year of 
the war was to conquer Canada. For this purpose three * 
armies, one concen¬ 
trated, at Detroit, 
another on Niagara 
River, and the third 
on Lake Champlain, 
were to advance into 
Canada, and meet¬ 
ing, seize Montreal 
and Quebec. The 
army at Detroit 
advanced into 
Canada, but soon Lake Erie and the Surrounding Country 
retreated, and, with¬ 
out firing a gun, its commander surrendered Detroit to a 
force composed mostly of Indians and Canadian militia. 
With the fall of Detroit much of the Northwest territory 
was lost to the enemy. A small force from the army on the 
Niagara crossed the river and made a gallant- attack upon 
the enemy’s position. Many of the militia, asserting that 
the government had no right to use them for invading a 
foreign country, declined to cross the river, and the attack 
failed. The army on Lake Champlain marched to the Can¬ 
adian boundary line, where the militia refused to go further. 

Victories on the Sea. — The disasters on land were in 
marked contrast to the successes on the sea. In the first 
year of the war the vessels of the little American navy met 
ships of the British navy in a number of single combats. 
In nearly every instance the American vessel, being the 








216 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

superior, won the battle. The most famous of America’s 
victorious ships was the Constitution. The successes at sea 
caused much enthusiasm. That America’s ships, from 
Which little had been expected, should win victories over 
ships of the great British navy, served to offset the dis¬ 
appointment caused by the American reverses on land. 

Great Britain was 
most disagreeably 
surprised. The 
luster that the 
victory of Trafalgar 
had shed upon her 
navy was dimmed by 
the achievements of 
a navy that she had 
held in contempt. 
The result was that 
Great Britain used 
her mighty navy to 
blockade the 
American coast for 
the double purpose 
of keeping America’s 
war vessels in port 
and weakening 
America’s resources 
by destroying her commerce. Against Great Britain’s best 
ships, our weak navy could do little. 

Second and Third Invasions of Canada. — In the spring 
of 1813 an American army again invaded Canada. The 
object of the invasion was the capture of Montreal. York 
(now Toronto), on Lake Ontario, was taken in a battle in 
which the British lost more than half their number. Some 
private soldiers of the American army, acting without 
authority, disgraced their flag by burning the British parlia¬ 
ment house. The army remained in Canada until autumn, 
but beyond taking York it accomplished nothing. 



The “ Constitution ” 


THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL RIGHTS 217 


In the summer of 1814 the Americans for the third time 
invaded Canada. They crossed the Niagara River and won 
the battles of Chippewa River and Lundy’s Lane. Winfield 
Scott, a young American officer who afterwards became 
very distinguished, acted with conspicuous gallantry in 
these battles. Again the Americans remained in Canada 
some months, and again the invasion ended in failure. 

Perry and Harrison Win Victories. — On the other hand 
important successes were won on the western frontiers. 
General William Henry Harrison, the hero of Tippecanoe, 
commanded a new army that had been sent into the 
Northwest. A British fleet on Lake Erie greatly hindered 
the operations of Harrison’s army until Oliver Hazard 
Perry, in vessels that were built under his direction on the 
shores of the lake, captured this fleet in a hot engagement 
on September 10, 1813. 1 The defeat of the British fleet 
gave the Americans control of Lake Erie, and compelled 
Proctor, the British general who 
commanded in the Northwest, to 
abandon Detroit, and to retire 
once more into Canada. General 
Harrison followed Proctor into 
Canada and defeated the British 
and Indians on the river Thames. 

Tecumseh, the famous Indian 
warrior, was killed in this battle. Perry’s Flag 

The Americans recovered in 

the Northwest the territory that they had given up when 
Detroit fell in the previous year, and never again lost it. 

Battle of Horseshoe Bend. — The Creek Indians, dwelling 
in what is now Alabama, had been incited to hostilities 
by Tecumseh and by British and Spanish agents. In the 
summer of 1813, the Creeks, led by a chief named Weathers- 

1 Perry announced his victory to General Harrison in a brief note: 
“Dear General: We have met the enemy and they are ours. Two 
ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop. Yours with great 
respect and esteem, O. H. Perry." 



218 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


ford, massacred settlers who had fled to Fort Mims on the 
Alabama River. Of four hundred men, women, and chil¬ 
dren, only about twenty escaped. The Indians then scoured 
the country and killed every white person they could find. 
Mixed bands of militia and friendly Indians avenged these 
outrages, defeating the Creeks in battle and refusing to give 
quarter. 

It was necessary, however, to strike the Creeks a deci¬ 
sive blow. On March 27, 1814, General Andrew Jackson, 
with a force of Tennessee militia, fell upon the fortified 
camp of the Indians, at Horseshoe Bend, on the Tallapoosa 



The Capitol after the Burning of Washington 


River, in Alabama. He inflicted upon them such heavy 
loss that they made peace, surrendering a large portion of 
their territory. 

Capture of Washington. — The British now took the 
offensive. An army entered Chesapeake Bay under the 
protection of a strong fleet. A detachment landed and 
marched fifty miles across the country to Washington, 
which was in a defenseless condition because the militia, 
called out to guard it, had fled. The President and his 
cabinet made haste to get away. The British entered 
Washington on August 24, 1814. The President’s house, 
the Capitol, and most of the other public buildings were 
destroyed. The British then made their way back to the 
fleet. They stated that they burned Washington because 
the Americans had burned the parliament house at York 
(Toronto) and committed other depredations in Canada. 









THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL RIGHTS 219 


The British army and fleet next attacked Baltimore. 
The army landed, but was defeated by Maryland troops. 
For nearly two days the fleet bombarded Fort McHenry 
in Baltimore harbor, and was finally driven off by the 
garrison. The gallant conduct of the Marylanders saved 
Baltimore from capture. 1 

British Defeated on Lake Champlain.—In the following 
month the British army in Canada, strongly reenforced, 
marched into New York by the shore ot Lake Cham¬ 
plain. It was supported by a fleet. The Americans had 
on the lake a fleet commanded by Thomas Macdonough. 
The squadrons met in a fiercely contested battle, and the 
British fleet was forced to surrender. On the defeat of the 
fleet the British army hastily retreated to Canada. 

Battle of New Orleans. — The British assembled a large 
army and fleet at Jamaica, an island of the West Indies 
belonging to Great Britain, for the purpose of wresting 
from the United States the old province of Louisiana. In 
the army were many 
veterans who had served 
in the wars against 
Napoleon and in the fleet 
were many of Great Brit¬ 
ain’s best warships. 

Near the close of 1814 
the expedition appeared q Q ld Medal presented by Congress 
off the coast of the Gulf to Andrew Jackson 

of Mexico, near the 

mouth of the Mississippi River. Eight thousand soldiers 
landed and marched against New Orleans. General Andrew 
Jackson, who had been sent to defend the city, had collected 
a force of all sorts of men. He had a few regulars, a consi¬ 
derable number of militia from Tennessee, Kentucky, and 

1 The attack upon Baltimore furnished Francis Scott Key the 
occasion for writing “The Star-spangled Banner." Key had gone to 
a British ship to secure the release of a friend who had been captured. 
He was detained on the vessel against his will during the night of the 





220 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Louisiana, some volunteers from among the citizens of New 
Orleans, negroes from neighboring plantations, and laborers 
from the West Indies. His main reliance was upon the militia 
who were frontiersmen accustomed to the use of the rifle. 

On January 8, 1815, the British attacked the entrench¬ 
ments that Jackson had hastily thrown up south of New 
Orleans. Twice these veterans of Europe charged the 
motley army defending the entrenchments, and each time 

the unerring fire of the fron¬ 
tiersmen mowed them down. 
So great was the slaughter 
that the enemy gave up the 
attempt to take the city. 
The American loss was very 
small. 

Treaty of Peace; Results of 
the War. —The great victory 
of New Orleans was won after 
peace had been made. A 
treaty had been signed at 
Ghent, in Belgium, on Decem¬ 
ber 24, 1814; but as only 
sailing vessels then crossed the 
ocean, and as about six weeks 
were required for the voyage, news of peace did not reach 
America until February, 1815. 

The European war had already ended with Napoleon 
defeated and sent into exile. Although Great Britain was 
now free to put all her efforts into the war with America, 
the British people, who had been suffering from war for 
more than twenty years, were weary and wished peace. 

The Americans also were tired of the war. On account 
of the nation’s utter lack of preparedness, the war from a 
military point of view had not been successful. For finan- 

bombardment of Fort McHenry. His delight on the next morning 
that the stars and stripes still floated over the fort inspired the stirring 
Words of this popular national hymn. 



A Scene in Ghent 


THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL RIGHTS 22 J 


cial reasons, too, the war had come to an end most oppor¬ 
tunely. The government was almost bankrupt; business 
had become so demoralized that there was great distress 
among the people. 

Since both sides were very desirous of bringing the war 
to an end, none of the principles for which it had been 
waged were settled by the treaty. On the whole, however, 
the result was not without gain to America. The fact that 
the young republic would engage in war with the mightiest 
nation to protect its rights, increased the respect for the 
new government both at home and abroad. Other nations 
came to see the justness of America’s stand, with the result 
that the principles proclaimed by America as the rights of 
neutrals are now international law. 1 Hence, the world 
at large gained by the war, which is often called the “War 
for Commercial Independence.” 

The Hartford Convention. — Although some of the bravest 
soldiers and seamen had volunteered from New England, 
the opposition of that section to the war continued to the 
end. New Englanders fed the British armies in Canada 
by selling them supplies; they refused to aid the American 
government financially by investing in its loans, yet they 
subscribed liberally to British loans. The New England 
coast was not blockaded with the rest of America, for Great 
Britain hoped that by treating that section gently New 
England would break up the Union. 

A convention, to which Massachusetts invited the other 
New England states, met at Hartford, Connecticut, late 
in 1814. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island 
sent delegates to the convention, which was attended also 
by representatives from some of the towns of New Hamp¬ 
shire and Vermont. The sessions were secret, and little 
of the proceedings has been made known. 

1 The fact that in the great World War, which broke out in 1914 
(one hundred years later), Germany violated the rights on the sea of 
the United States, a neutral nation, was one of the causes for which the 
United States entered the war in ooDOsition to Germany. 


22 2 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


The published reports proposed some amendments to 
the Constitution and made several demands on Congress; 
justified secession and affirmed the nullification principles 
of the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions (see page 202). 
The convention adjourned to meet again in the summer of 
1815 if its plans were not complied with or if peace were not 
declared. As news of peace reached America before the 
time set for the second meeting, the convention did not 
come together again. The Republicans (Democrats) openly 
charged that the object of the convention was disunion. 
The Federalist party, whose leaders had advocated the 
convention, was ruined. 

Finances. — Just before the beginning of the war, the 
charter of the national bank (see page 191) having expired. 
Congress Refused to grant it a new charter, for a strong preju¬ 
dice against the bank had spread among the people. The 
country, deprived of the safe currency furnished by the 
national bank, had to carry on the war dependent upon 
the currency of state banks. In the disruption of business 
caused by the war, nearly every state bank out of New 
England suspended specie payments; that is, quit paying 
out gold or silver when demanded. The people had to 
use paper money, issued by towns, “wild cat” banks, and 
even individuals, and this money, of course, had uncertain 
value. 

When the war was over, Congress immediately gave 
attention to. the finances. It established a new national 
bank and took other vigorous steps to inspire confidence 
in the government, but it was some years before business 
recovered. 

Fixing the Northwestern Boundary. — The peace that 
settled over the world upon the downfall of Napoleon was re¬ 
flected by two important treaties soon made by the United 
States. 

James Monroe, of Virginia, who succeeded Madison in 
the Presidency in 1817, immediately set about arranging 
peaceably two vexing questions with foreign nations. A 


THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL RIGHTS 223 

treaty was made with Great Britain, in 1818, in which the 
boundary between the territory of the United States west of 
the Mississippi (the Louisiana 
Purchase) and the British pos¬ 
sessions in Canada, from the 
Lake of the Woods to the Rocky 
Mountains, was fixed on the 49th 
parallel of latitude. Since both 
the United States and Great 
Britain claimed the Oregon 
country, decision as to the boun¬ 
dary west of the mountains was 
postponed. Meantime, people of 
both nations might occupy the 
disputed territory for a period of 
ten years. 

Andrew Jackson in Florida.— 

The other vexing question 
related to Florida. For many 
had tried, but without success, to purchase Florida from 
Spain, for the occupation of that territory by Spaniards 
was a constant source of trouble. Spanish agents in Florida 
often incited Indians to attack settlers in Georgia and Ala¬ 
bama (see page 193), and during the recent war, British 
agents used Florida as a base from which to persuade the 
Creek Indians to rise up against the United States (see 
page 217). After the battle of Horseshoe Bend many of 
the Creeks took refuge in the territory. These Indians, to¬ 
gether with the Seminoles of Florida and runaway slaves, 
formed bands that ravaged the southern borders. After peace 
with Great Britain had been declared, the government 
ordered General Andrew Jackson to move against the out¬ 
laws. With a force of regulars and militia, he followed 
them into Florida. Considering the Spaniards responsible 
for the raids of the Indians, Jackson seized the Spanish 
towns of Pensacola and St. Marks; and, moreover, he 
caused to be executed two subjects of Great Britain who 



James Monroe 
years the United States 


224 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


had been convicted by court-martial of having aided the 
Indians. 

Purchase of Florida. — It was feared that Jackson’s 
conduct would involve the country in war with Great 
Britain and Spain, and efforts were made in Congress to 
censure him. The general defended his course on the 
ground that public safety demanded it, and Congress sus¬ 
tained him. Fortunately war did not follow. On the 
contrary, a treaty was made in 1819, by which Spain 
sold Florida to the United States for five million dollars. 
By the terms of the treaty the boundary between the United 
States and the Spanish provinces west of the Mississippi 
was agreed upon. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Give the story of Napoleon Bonaparte and of how he made 
himself Emperor of the French. Describe the battle of Trafalgar and 
its effect upon America. 

2. Describe and criticise the Long Embargo. What section of our 
country suffered most from it, and what protests were made? Define 
the Non-intercourse Act. Who succeeded Jefferson in the Presidency? 

3. What did the Little Belt affair and Tecumseh’s confederacy have 
to do with the War of 1812? Which political party desired war against 
Great Britain in 1812? Describe America’s unpreparedness for war v 
and explain how this condition came about. Why was New England 
opposed to the war? How did that section practically defy the United 
States in its failure to respond to the call for militia? 

4. What was the plan and result of the first invasion of Canada? 
Recount the American successes on the ocean. What did Great Britain 
do in consequence of the American naval victories? 

5. Tell about the second and third invasions of Canada. Describe 
the victories of Perry and Harrison. What led Andrew Jackson to 
attack the Creek Indians? Tell about his battle with them at Horseshoe 
Bend. 

6. What disgraceful defeat did the Americans meet with in 1814? 
What success did they meet with at Baltimore? What famous song 
owes its existence to this success? Tell about the naval battle on Lake 
Champlain. What signal but unnecessary victory did the Americans 
win in 1815? 

7. When was the treaty of Ghent signed? Why was Great Britain 
weary of the war? Why America? What did America gain by the 
war? What did the world gain? 


THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL RIGHTS 225 


8 . Could the United States thank all her citizens for loyal support 
in the war? If not, state why. Tell about the Hartford Convention. 

9. Describe the financial condition of the country after the War of 
1812 and tell what was done to improve it. State how the Northwestern 
boundary was fixed by a treaty with Great Britain in 1818. Describe 
Andrew Jackson’s invasion of Florida. How did the United States 
come into possession of Florida in 1819? 

Project Exercises 

1. Review the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 and 1799, 
and compare them with the action of the Hartford Convention of 1814. 

2. Compare Germany’s use of the submarine, which drew the 
United States into the World War, with Great Britain’s commercial 
policy in the early nineteenth century, which drew the United States 
into the War of 1812. 

Important Dates: 

1804. Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor of the French. 

1805. Battle of Trafalgar. 

1812. Beginning of the Second War between the United States and 
Great Britain. 

1813. Battles of Lake Erie and the Thames. 

1814. End of the Second War between the United States and Great 
Britain. 

1815. Battle of New Orleans. 

1818. Settlement of the Northwestern boundary as far as thi 
Rocky Mountains. 

1819. Purchase of Florida. 


CHAPTER XX 


THIRTY YEARS OF PROGRESS (1790-1820). 

Population and Boundaries. — In the thirty years follow¬ 
ing the inauguration of the new government, great progress 
had been made. The population had increased from four 
million to nearly ten million. The western boundary was 



Notice that the Western settlers are mainly south of the Ohio 


no longer the Mississippi, but the Rocky Mountain region, 
and even the Oregon country beyond was claimed by the 
United States. Yet in 1820 our area was much smaller 
than now. The treaty made in the previous year for the 
purchase of Florida had not been ratified by Spain; hence 

226 














THIRTY YEARS OF PROGRESS (1790-1820) 22 7 

the Spaniards still held that territory. 1 All Texas, New 
Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, California, Utah, and portions of 
Wyoming, Colorado, Kansas, and Oklahoma belonged to Spain. 

Vermont. — In 1791 Vermont, the first state after the 
original thirteen, was admitted to the Union. The part of 
New England embraced in Vermont, formerly claimed by 
both New Hampshire and New York, had long been well 
settled and ready for statehood. 

Emigration to the West. — It was to the fertile and 
unoccupied lands of the Mississippi Valley that the restless 
Americans looked with longing eyes. The rush to the 
West forms one of the most interesting phases of American 
history. Singly or in families the emigrants left their 
homes and formed traveling parties on the few roads that 
led to the West. Men on foot, men on horseback, wagons 
and carts loaded with household goods, women and children 
trudging along by the side of overburdened wagons, herds 
of cattle, and droves of hogs, presented a scene that could 
be witnessed almost any day on the dusty highways. Once 
over the mountains, the emigrants made use of the Ohio 
and Mississippi rivers and their tributaries. Down the 
streams they floated in flat-bottomed boats or barges. 

Early Life in the West. — 

Life on the frontier was but 
the old story of the first col¬ 
onial settlers repeated. The 
pioneer built a log cabin for 
his home and cleared a field 
for his first planting. His 
ready rifle protected him from 
the lurking Indian. Often 
the nearest white man was 
many miles away. Cut off from the outside world, he lived 
on the food crop he raised and the game he killed in the 

1 Early in the next year (1821), when notified of the ratification of 
the treaty by Spain, the United States immediately took possession of 
Florida and organized it into a territory under the laws of Congress. 



A Pioneer Home in Kentucky 




228 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


woods. The thrifty housewife made all the clothes for the 
family. With homes so scattered schools were rare, and 
these schools gave only a smattering of reading, writing, 
and arithmetic. Nor could a boy or girl always attend 
school regularly, for in the hard struggle for a living there 
was plenty of work for children to do at home. If, per¬ 
chance, a passing preacher stopped at a settler’s humble 
cabin, the family and neighbors gathered to hear his ser¬ 
mons. His coming was awaited often with eagerness that 
he might perform the baptismal or marriage ceremony. 

The desire to own a home and be independent made 
the frontiersman willing to endure a life of excessive 
toil and few pleasures. Splendid was the heroism of the 
women who shared the frontier life. They braved every 
danger without flinching; they endured every hardship 
without complaining; and they reared their children to 
become strong-bodied, self-reliant men and women. 

The Northwest and the Southwest. — In one respect 
there was a marked difference in the frontier life north 

and south of the Ohio 
River. Slavery had been 
prohibited in the country 
north of the Ohio when 
the Congress of the Con¬ 
federation organized it, in 
1787, into the Northwest 
Territory (see page 168); 
consequently, farms in 
that region were small. 
Com was the main crop. In the country south of the Ohio, 
where slavery was allowed and tobacco and cotton were the 
main crops, the settlers secured large tracts of land on 
which they employed many slaves. In both sections a few 
cabins clustering around a store or blacksmith forge would 
mark the beginning of a town. 

Governing the Territories. — For governing the western 
country the plan adopted in organizing the Northwest 



A Western Settlement 


229 


THIRTY YEARS OF PROGRESS (1790-1820) 

Territory was in most cases followed. When a section 
had come to contain sufficient population it was organized 
as a territory. The territory continued under the direction 
of Congress, but its inhabitants were given partial self- 
government. When the population had again increased 
sufficiently, the territory was admitted into the Union as a 
state with all the rights that the original states enjoyed. 



Notice how Southern farmers are settling in the river valleys 


New States in the West. — When a state was admitted, 
the frontier, moving westward, had usually passed its bor¬ 
ders. Even before the Revolutionary War, pioneers had 
carried the frontier over the Alleghany Mountains into 
western Pennsylvania and into what is now Kentucky and 
Tennessee. In 1792, Kentucky, and in 1796, Tennessee, 
were admitted into the Union as states. Ohio, the first 
state carved from the Northwest Territory, was admitted 
in 1803. The southern part of the Louisiana Purchase, 
which already had a considerable population on account 
of its long occupation by France and Spain, was admitted, 
in 1812, as the state of Louisiana. Other states followed; 











230 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Indiana (1817); Mississippi (1817); Illinois (1818); Ala¬ 
bama (1819). By 1820 the frontier had moved westward 
across the Mississippi River and beyond Missouri and 
Arkansas, which had been erected into territories; north¬ 
westward it had gone beyond Michigan, which had also 
been made a territory. The “Far West,” which was at 
Pittsburgh in Washington’s time, had moved in Monroe’s 
time to St. Louis; yet the Indians still occupied a large 
part of the region about the Great Lakes and much of the 
extreme South. 



St. Louis in 1800 
From Stevens’ Missouri , the Center State 


Immigration from Europe. — Meanwhile the population of 
the seaboard states had steadily increased. Though emigra¬ 
tion to the West was made at the expense of these states, 
yet it was more than offset by the natural increase and by 
immigrants from Europe after 1815. The depression of all 
kinds of industry in Europe, caused by the long-continued 
Napoleonic wars, had deprived many thousands of employ¬ 
ment; the disbanding of the armies and navies, with the 
coming of peace, threw many more upon the world without 
the means of livelihood; and taxes were constantly growing 
to pay the cost of the wars. These oppressed people, many 
of whom were most worthy, saw in America a refuge from 









THIRTY YEARS OF PROGRESS (1790-1820) 23I 

•their burdens. Hardly had peace been declared in Europe, 
when they began coming over in large numbers. In the 
year that Monroe was inaugurated (1817) no less than 
fifty thousand immigrants reached our shores. Most of 
these were from England, Ireland, and Germany, but there 
were some from every country of Europe. While many 
of the newcomers pushed on into the West, much the greater 
part remained in the eastern states. 

The Four Most Populous States. — The census of 
1820 showed that New York, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and 
Massachusetts were, in the order named, the most populous 
states, and that their combined population exceeded the 
whole number of persons in the United States when Wash¬ 
ington was inaugurated. The North had become more 
populous than the South. 

The Industrial Revolution. — During the American Revo¬ 
lution and the period just following, England underwent 
marvelous changes in her industrial conditions — changes 
which ultimately affected the entire world. Hitherto, all 
manufacturing had been done by hand, with clumsy imple¬ 
ments not much better than those used in ancient times. 
Indeed, the word “manufacture” comes from two Latin 
words that mean to make by hand. The manufacturer 
made his products at home, his sons aiding in the heavier 
and his wife and daughters in the lighter work. Women 
made yam on the spinning wheel and men wove it into 
cloth on hand looms. The labor was slow and the cloth 
usually coarse. The ever-increasing commerce of England 
called for quicker work and better cloth, and, to meet the 
demand, machines were invented. 

The first invention of importance in the manufacture of 
cloth was the flying shuttle which John Kay, an English¬ 
man, completed in 1738. Although the loom was still 
worked by hand, the flying shuttle enabled weaving to be 
done so fast that a machine for spinning as rapidly became 
necessary. This need was met by James Hargreaves, an 
English weaver, who invented, in 1764, a machine for spin- 


232 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

ning which is run by power and which he called a jenny in 
compliment to his wife. Hargreaves’ jenny would spin 

from 8 to 24 threads at 
one time. In 1769 
Richard Arkwright, who 
was a barber by trade, 
put into practical use the 
process, known as roller 
spinning, of passing the 
roving between rollers 
revolving at different 
speeds. But the thread 
Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny spun by Hargreaves’ 

jenny and Arkwrights’ 
roller process was too weak to be used successfully for the 
warp inweaving; so, in 1779, Samuel Crompton, a mechanic, 
invented a machine which is a combination of the two 
processes and which produces a much stronger thread than 
either. Crompton called his invention the spinning-mule. 
In 1785, an English clergy¬ 
man, Dr. Edmund Cart¬ 
wright, invented a loom to 
be run by power. Cotton 
and woolen cloth could now 
be made in vastly larger 
quantities and of much 
superior texture. 

At first machinery was 
run by water power, but 
in the very year that the 
power loom was invented, Watts’ Steam-Engine 

James Watts, a Scotchman, 

after twenty-five years of diligent effort, made a steam 
engine that would run the jenny and the loom. The power 
of steam had been known to the ancient Greeks, and steam 
engines had even been used in England; but until Watts 
made his improved engine they were of little value. 































THIRTY YEARS OF PROGRESS (1790-1820) 


233 


About the time of Watts’ invention it was found that coal 
was a most excellent fuel for the engine. Previously iron 
had been worked with charcoal; the use of coal-burning 
steam engines increased the manufacture of iron and steel. 
These inventions and discoveries produced a marvelous 
change in manufacturing that is known in history as the 
“Industrial Revolution.” The result of the revolution was 
to develop rapidly England’s commerce, and, because it 
was many years before another country made general use 



Power Looms in an English Mill, 1820 


of machinery, England secured a lead in commerce that has 
never been overtaken. 

The Factory System. — But industry did not advance 
without having a dark side. The man who had hitherto 
manufactured wares in a simple way at his home had not 
the money to buy the machinery or to erect large buildings 
to house it and employ the large number of laborers needed 
to run it. Consequently, manufacturing passed to the 
rich man or capitalist. Thousands of people thrown out 
of employment in pleasant surroundings were forced to 
move to factory towns, where not only the men but their 
wives and children worked for long hours and low wages in 












234 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

unhealthful buildings, and where all lived cooped up in 
unhealthful tenements. The factory system also caused a 
division of those interested in manufacturing into two 
classes — capital and labor — a division which, on account 
of misunderstandings between the classes, has been a source 
of much trouble. 

Conditions surrounding work about the factory have been 
steadily improving since the system began. In every manu¬ 
facturing country laws have been passed for the protection 
of the operatives. Owners of the great establishments are 
coming to realize the importance of caring for the health 
and happiness of the people who work for them. The fac¬ 
tory gives employment to thousands more than did the 
old system of handwork in the household, and it is one of 
the chief means for making it possible to supply the ever 
increasing wants of the world. 

Pioneers in American Manufactures. — Great Britain, 
following the selfish commercial ideas of the times ; sought 
to keep to herself the benefit of the inventions and passed 
a law forbidding the sending of models or descriptions ol 
them out of the kingdom. The effect of the law was only 
temporary, for other countries were certain sooner or later 
to secure in some way such useful inventions. Samuel 
Slater, an Englishman who had worked some years with 
machinery, came to America in answer to an advertisement 
for some one to make machines for a cotton factory. He 
concealed his purpose for fear he would not be allowed to 
leave England; nor would he risk bringing with him models 
or descriptions. In 1790 Slater set up in Pawtucket, Rhode 
Island, the first successful spinning mill, run by power, in 
America. He duplicated from memory the machinery 
used in England. In 1814, Francis C. Lowell, an American 
who had traveled in England and studied carefully the 
machinery used there, erected a mill at Waltham, Massa¬ 
chusetts, the first in America where, under one roof, spin¬ 
ning, weaving, and all the processes in making cloth were 
done by machinery. 


THIRTY YEARS OF PROGRESS (1790-1820) 


235 


The Tariff Aids Manufactures in America. — Meanwhile 
other influences were operating to make the manufacturing 
industry in America, which in Washington’s time amounted 
to practically nothing, assume a place of importance in 
Monroe’s time. First, the tariff tax placed on foreign 
goods for the purpose of raising a revenue, tended to protect 
from foreign competition our “infant industries,” as the 
manufactures were called; then the restrictions on com¬ 
merce preceding the War of 1812 and the war itself shut out 
foreign goods. With the people compelled to buy home 
products, American manufactures grew. Many rich men 
formerly engaged in commerce turned their attention to 
manufacturing. 

Prejudice against the Factory System. — The “industrial 
revolution” did not come as quickly in America, however, 
as in England. There was much prejudice against the 
factory system; statesmen could be found who asserted that 
America should “keep her workshops in Europe.” It was 
argued that, with so much land needing settlement, people 
should not be crowded into unwholesome mills; that they 
should enjoy the open sky and broad fields rather than be 
subjected to the demoralizing influence of towns. 

Growing Influence of Manufacturers. — Moreover, man¬ 
ufacturing in the household had by no means ceased by 
1820. Many, thousands of families still did their own 
Spinning and weaving. Perhaps two thirds of the clothing, 
table and bed linen, blankets, quilts, soap and candles used 
in the interior were made at home. Nevertheless, the manu¬ 
facturers had grown so strong that they were beginning to 
demand that Congress pass laws in their interest (see page 
257 )- 

Whitney and his Cotton Gin. — The invention of the 
cotton gin was an outgrowth of the industrial revolution in 
England. As manufacturing increased the demand for 
cotton increased; but, as long as the fiber of cotton 
tvas separated from the seed by hand, a method slow and 
costly, very little of the staple was produced in America. 


236 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


Eli Whitney, a native of Massachusetts, had moved to 
Georgia to teach and was living in the home of the widow 
of the Revolutionary general, Nathanael Greene. On one 
occasion some planters, visiting Mrs. Greene, were deploring 
the slow method used to separate the cotton fiber from the 
seed. Mrs. Greene, knowing Whitney’s aptitude for ma¬ 
chinery, suggested that he try to make a machine for the 
purpose. The suggestion set Whitney to work, with the 
result that he invented, in 1793, a machine which he called 
a “gin,” a contraction of the word “engine.” Whitney’s 
gin cleaned of the seed three hundred pounds of cotton a 
day, whereas the old hand method cleaned only one pound. 



Improved model. Whitney’s model 

Cotton Gins 

The invention made cotton so profitable that it soon became 
the chief product of the South, and cotton planting devel¬ 
oped the uplands of the interior, where rice, sugar cane and 
tobacco did not grow. 

Emancipation of Slaves in the North. — All the original 
states north of Mason and Dixon’s line (the boundary 
between Pennsylvania and Maryland) had passed laws which 
gave the slaves their freedom; and the forbidding of slavery 
in the Northwest Territory had moved the line between 
the free-labor states and the slave-labor states westward 
along the Ohio River. Up to the time when Eli Whitney 
invented the cotton gin, slavery had not gained such headway 













THIRTY YEARS OF PROGRESS (1790-1820) 237 


in the South as to forbid the hope of many persons, both 
North and South, that it would soon pass away. 

Increase of Slaves in the South. — But the Southern 
people believed that slaves made the best laborers in the 
cultivation of cotton, and the result was that between 1793, 
when the cotton gin was invented, and 1808, when Congress, 
acting under a provision in the Constitution, forbade the 
further importation of slaves, great numbers of slaves were 
brought from Africa to the Southern plantations. Many of 
the cotton manufacturers shared in the belief that slave 
labor was best for cotton, and hence the influence of that 
class at the North was enlisted on the side of slavery. 

Much of the cotton was exported to England, in exchange 
for which Southerners purchased English goods; for this 
reason the Southern people naturally opposed a high tariff — 
that is, a high tax laid on imported goods, which would thus 
increase their cost in this country. 

Perhaps no invention had greater influence on the political 
history of America than Whitney’s cotton gin. 

Invention of the Steamboat. — Repeated attempts had 
been made in America to construct a boat that could be 
satisfactorily pro¬ 
pelled by steam. ^ 

Some would prob¬ 
ably have suc- 
ceeded if the 
inventors had pos¬ 
sessed the money 
or perseverance to 
continue their 
efforts. Robert 
Fulton, an Ameri- 
can temporarily 
residing in France, experimented on the Seine River, at 
Paris, with a steamboat of his invention. Not hav¬ 
ing the money to continue the experiments, he ap¬ 
plied for assistance to Napoleon, who gave him little 



The “Clermont’ 












238 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


encouragement. Nothing daunted, Fulton returned to 
America and with the financial assistance of a friend built 
a boat — the Clermont , — which was propelled by steam 
and in 1807 made a trip up the Hudson River from New 
York to Albany. The success of steam navigation was 
assured. 

The First Steamer to Cross the Atlantic. — For the next 
few years steamboats were used only on the Hudson and 
Delaware rivers, but in 1811 a steamboat made the trip from 
Pittsburgh down the Ohio and the Mississippi to New 
Orleans. It was at first thought that steamboats could 
never be used on the ocean; this belief was dispelled in 



The “Savannah" 


The first steamship that crossed the Atlantic. 


1815 when a steamboat went from New York to Norfolk. 
The voyage along the coast by steamboat was looked upon 
as a great event; yet it was soon followed by one even 
greater. In 1819, the steamer Savannah made a voyage 
across the ocean from Savannah to Liverpool, England, 
whence it proceeded to St. Petersburg (now Petrograd), 
Russia. The little vessel was regarded with great curiosity 
in Europe. 

Steamboats came into general use slowly. It was some 
years after 1820 before they became numerous on the rivers 
and the Great Lakes, and it was still longer before they made 
regular voyages across the Atlantic. 




THIRTY YEARS OF PROGRESS (1790-1820) 


239 


Need of a Good Road to the West. — The early emigrants 
to the West had made their way across the mountains and 
through the forests along Indian trails and buffalo paths. 
The roads they made were miserable. As the West became 
more and more populous, the desire had grown for better 
roads to connect the Atlantic states with the states beyond 
the Alleghanies. Westerners naturally wished good roads 
in their section; eastern merchants wished them in order 
to secure the western trade, for it was easier for the people 
of the West, by using the Mississippi, to trade with New 
Orleans than to cross the mountains on bad roads. Since 
it would cost too much for individuals or private corporations 



to build these roads, the United States government was 
asked to build them. 

The Cumberland Road. — In response to the demand, 
Congress began in 1806 the construction of the Cumberland, 
or National Road. This road was a broad, well-laid turnpike 
that ran westward from Cumberland, Maryland. By 1820 
it had been extended as far as Wheeling, a distance of one 
hundred and forty miles. 1 The Cumberland Road soon 
became the main highway to the West. Any day one 
could see upon it a swarm of travelers. Meanwhile state 
governments and corporations had built roads of shorter 
length, with the result that in many parts of the country 
there were excellent turnpikes and good bridges. 

The Erie Canal. — The people of New York, finding 
that the Cumberland Road carried the western trade to 

1 In 1840, when Congress stopped building the Cumberland Road, 
it had reached Vandalia, Illinois, a distance of eight hundred miles. 









240 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Philadelphia and Baltimore, formed a plan that would 
divert most of the trade to themselves. The state of New 
York began, in 1817, the construction of the Erie Canal, 
which extends from Albany on the Hudson to Buffalo on 
Lake Erie, thus connecting at New York City the Great 
Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean. The Erie Canal, the second 
longest canal in the world, was completed in 1825. Consider¬ 
ing the amount of money and labor it cost, the building of 
the canal was, for the times, a remarkable achievement. 
The completion of the work was celebrated with elaborate 



ceremonies, in which a keg containing water from Lake 
Erie was emptied into the Atlantic Ocean to symbolize 
the *‘wedding of the waters.” 

The advantages of the Erie Canal were quickly shown. 
Trade sprang up between New York and the western country 
which soon gave New York a lead over her sister cities as a 
commercial center — a lead which she has never lost. 

Although the Erie Canal was built primarily for the 
exchange of freight between New York and the western 
country, its boats also carried passengers. The canal be¬ 
came quite a popular route for travelers to and from the 
West. Encouraged by the success of the Erie Canal, other 















THIRTY YEARS OF PROGRESS (1790-1820) 


241 


state governments built canals, though they built none of 
the size of the Erie. 


Topics and Questions 

1. State approximately the population and area of the United 
States in 1820. What state was the first after the original thirteen to 
be admitted into the Union? 

2. Describe the “tide of emigration” to the West. Describe early 
life in the West. Contrast the Northwest and the Southwest. State 
how territories, and then states, were formed in the West. Name the 
western states that were admitted prior to 1820. 

3. Why did immigration increase rapidly after 1815? From what 
countries were most immigrants coming? In what part of our country 
did most of them settle? Which were the most populous states? 
Which section was more populous? 

4. Describe the “Industrial Revolution” in England. Describe the 
factory system in England and its effect upon that country. Tell about 
the introduction of manufactures into America, and the prejudice 
against the factory system. How were the necessities of most families 
in America still supplied? 

5. Tell about the invention of the cotton gin. Why had slavery 
been given up north of Mason and Dixon’s line? Why had it not 
extended into the Northwest? How did the invention of the cotton 
gin influence the feeling of the South toward slavery and the tariff? 
Describe the invention of the steamboat. Why were Europeans in¬ 
terested in the steamship Savannah? 

6. What were the needs that brought about the building of the 
Cumberland Road and other roads leading to the West? Describe the 
Cumberland Road. How did the Erie Canal “link up the East and 
the West ” ? Trace its route. 

Project Exercises 

1. If there is a factory near your home, tell all you can about it. 

2. Tell in your own words what manufacturing is doing for the 
Country to-day. 

Important Dates: 

1764. Invention of the spinning jenny, marking the beginning of 
the “Industrial Revolution.” 

1790. First spinning mill in America successfully lun by power. 

1793. Invention of the cotton gin. 

1807. Invention of the steamboat. 


CHAPTER XXI 

1 HOW AMERICANS LIVED IN 1820 

Life in the Cities. — According to the census of 1820, 
New York City had one hundred and twenty-five thousand 
inhabitants. Philadelphia came next with a population 
of one hundred and twenty thousand. Baltimore had 
outstripped Boston, the former having about sixty-five 
thousand and the latter about forty-five thousand popu¬ 
lation. 

The condition of the cities had greatly improved since 
Washington’s time. The streets were better paved and 
better lighted, and the buildings were more convenient. 
Though whale oil lamps could be seen now and then, yet 
the houses were commonly lighted with candles. Gas had 
not come into use for lighting. 1 Wood was still used almost 
universally as fuel in the house, for the value of coal fox 
heating was not appreciated. Social life had grown gayer 
and had cast aside the sedate amusements of colonial and 
revolutionary days. The quilting party and spinning 
match were still rural pastimes, but were looked upon as 
old-fashioned in the cities, where balls and dances were 
numerous and well attended, and where the theater was 
now in high favor. 

Dress. — The change in dress had also been great. The 
three-cornered hat of the Revolution was no more. In its 
stead men wore high stiff hats. Coats for everyday use and 
for the most ceremonial occasions were of the same style and 
were similar to the evening coat of the present time. Trou¬ 
sers reaching below the ankles had taken the place of knee 

1 Gas began to be used for lighting a few years later. Electricity 
was not used for this purpose until nearly three quarters of a century 
later. 


242 


HOW AMERICANS LIVED IN 1820 243 

breeches, and high boots had supplanted pointed shoes and 
buckles. 

Women no longer followed the fashions of colonial dames 
The lofty headdress and wide skirt and hoop had been dis< 
carded for the Grecian coil and the narrow empire gown. 
But the belles of that day were no less fond of brilliant colors 
and fine clothes than were their grandmothers. A writer 
of the period states that “French silks and Canton crapes 
are profusely worn even by the moderately gay, and female 


dress is sometimes as splendid and sometimes as ridiculous 
in New York as in London.” 

Modes of Travel. — Since steamboats had not yet come 
into general use, the usual mode of travel for the fashionable 
was still by the stagecoach. As the roads had been much 
improved in the East, travel by coach in that section was 
quicker and more comfortable than it was in Washington’s 
time. One could go by stage from Boston to New York 
in two days, and from New York to Charleston in about 
ten days. Sometimes a journey was made partly by steamer 
and partly by stage. Nor did the steamer make fast time. 
A steamboat consumed five days in going down the Missis¬ 
sippi from St. Louis to New Orleans and two weeks in re¬ 
turning against the current. Neither coach nor steamboat 
carried freight. Companies, similar to the express com- 







244 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

panies of our day, hauled merchandise for the public. For 
this purpose they used sloops on the rivers and along the 
coasts, and wagons in the interior. 

The Postal Service. — Post offices had increased from 
seventy-five in Washington’s time to thousands in Monroe’s 

time. Postage was still 
charged according to dis¬ 
tance; the rate for a letter, 
written on a single sheet 
of paper, graded from six 
cents for distances of 
thirty miles or less to 
twenty-five cents for dis¬ 
tances greater than four 
hundred miles. For every 
extra sheet the fee was 
charged again. As the 
letter was not enclosed in 
an envelope, but merely 
secured by sealing wax, the number of sheets could be easily 
counted by the postmaster. 

Newspapers. — The newspapers of this period were an 
improvement upon the little sheets that told of the surrender 
of Cornwallis. There were, perhaps, more newspapers in 
America than in any other country. A few were dailies. 
The reading matter generally consisted of items of local 
interest, brief summaries of the proceedings of Congress, 
essays on public questions, and foreign news taken from 
European newspapers six weeks old. 

Schools. — The public school, as we know it, was not 
generally in existence. Free education was usually offered 
only to the poor, and many needy parents looked upon the 
acceptance of it as placing their children' in the pauper 
class; hence, education of the poor had made little progress. 
Parents who could afford to do so sent their children to 
private schools or academies, many of which were well con¬ 
ducted. Colleges had been established in nearly every state. 



Post-Rider of the Olden Times 





HOW AMERICANS LIVED IN 1820 


245 


Prison Reform. — Though many of the prisons continued 
to be loathsome, disease-breeding places, the work of prison 
reform had begun. Some of the states had adopted the 
penitentiary system. Punishment was less severe. The 
death penalty was inflicted only for such crimes as are 
to-day considered capital offenses. Public opinion was fast 
condemning the stocks, the whipping post, cropping, and 
branding. Persons were rarely imprisoned for debt. 

American Literature. — The colonial period produced only 
two eminent writers, Jonathan Edwards and Benjamin 
Franklin (see page 103). There were many writers in the 
Revolutionary period and in the years immediately follow¬ 
ing, but their work is not considered of the highest order. 



Washington Irving 


James Fenimore Cooper 


American literature took on new life with the rise of the 
national spirit. Charles Brockden Brown published several 
novels shortly after the adoption of the Constitution. They 
were widely read at the time, but are not of much interest 
to present-day readers. Brown is remembered chiefly be¬ 
cause he was the first American novelist of merit. 

Washington Irving was the first American whose writings 
were recognized, not only in America but the world over, 
as classic. For this reason he is often called the “father of 
American literature.” His first book, Knickerbocker's His - 


246 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


tory of New York , appeared in 1809 and his Sketch Book in 
1819. Irving’s grace of style and delightful sense of humor 
are as refreshing to-day as they were a hundred years ago. 
In 1811, William Cullen Bryant, when only seventeen years 
old, wrote Thanatopsis, a sublime poem on nature and 
death, which stamped the author as the first great Americar 
poet. James Fenimore Cooper published The Spy in 1821. 
This was the initial number of a series of novels in which he 
portrayed American adventure. Cooper wrote the firs! 
novels of distinctively American flavor that have endured, 
and the popularity of his stories of frontier life, Indian war¬ 
fare, and adventure upon the sea is not confined to America. 
To this day they are read with much interest in Europe. 

By far the greater part of the contributions of Irving, 
Bryant, and Cooper to American literature were made after 
this period, but the work they had already done gave assur¬ 
ance that America would have a permanent place in the 
world of letters. 

The “Era of Good Feeling.” — Opposition to the War of 

1812 having destroyed the Federalist party, Monroe, who 
was the candidate of the Republicans (Democrats), had been 
elected to the Presidency practically without opposition. 
His inauguration in 1817 ushered in a time so free from po¬ 
litical strife that it was hailed as the “era of good feeling." 
Yet the tranquillity was soon broken by a question that 
aroused violent feeling between the people of the North and 
the people of the South. Missouri Territory applied for 
admission as a state in 1819, and the question arose whether 
Missouri should be a state with or without slavery. 

The Contest for Missouri Political. — Slavery had 
been accepted by all America early in the colonial period. 
Yet from the very first it was deplored by leading 
colonists, and as time passed, protests against importing 
slaves went to the king, especially from the Southern 
colonists where slaves were more numerous. But their 
protests were vain, for the king, as well as his subjects in 
England, got revenue from the slave trade (see page 111). 


HOW AMERICANS LIVED IN 1820 


247 


Shipowners of the North also engaged extensively in the 
traffic. Down to the very time (1808) when the importation 
of slaves was prohibited, they continued to bring negroes 
from Africa to the South. Great Britain and the North 
“each had a hand in the establishing of negro slavery.” 1 

The controversy about Missouri was due to the struggle 
between the North and the South for control of the govern¬ 
ment, brought about by the conflicting interests of the sec¬ 
tions. The movement of the abolitionists against the slavery 
system itself had not begun. 

Differences between the Sections. — It was natural that 
the interests of the North and South should conflict. What 
suited one section did not suit the other, and therefore each 
desired to have control of the government. The two sec¬ 
tions differed also in their views of the Constitution. The 
North generally believed that the Constitution should be 
construed liberally so that the Federal government should 
have much power; while the South generally clung to the 
loctrine that the Federal government had only such powers 
as are expressly granted in the Constitution. 

With a view to preserving a balance between the sections 
in the making of new states, free-labor states and slave¬ 
holding states had hitherto been admitted almost alternately; 
so that, of the twenty-two states then composing the Union, 
eleven had free labor and eleven permitted slavery. The 
states forbidding slavery were New Hampshire, Vermont, 
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. The 
states permitting slavery were Delaware, Maryland, Vir¬ 
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, 
Mississippi, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Kentucky. 

Effect of Territorial Expansion upon Slavery. — The ex¬ 
pansion of boundaries by the Louisiana purchase brought into 

1 Rhodes’ History of the United States , vol. i, page 379. In order 
to avoid the loss that would ensue from the emancipation laws of their 
states, many Northern slaveholders sold their slaves to the South. 
See Stephens’ War Between the States, vol. ii, page 102, etc. 


2 48 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATE 

the United States an immense domain which eventually must 
be divided into many states. The section that gained con¬ 
trol of this domain would control the government. North¬ 
erners did not want the Louisiana purchase made into a 
slaveholding domain, for the formation of new slaveholding 
states would give the South control; and they looked upon 
the admission of Missouri with slave labor as the entering 
wedge for turning over the whole domain to slavery. South¬ 
erners desired to carry their slaves with them when they 
sought homes in the new lands, and wished to preserve the 
strength of their section in the Union; therefore, they 
favored the admission of Missouri as a slave-labor state. 
The difference of opinion regarding the Constitution came 
out very strongly in the controversy. Missouri herself 
wished to be a slave-labor state; in fact, as a territory 
she was already holding slaves. But the North asserted 
that Congress had power to forbid slavery in the public 
domain. The South denied that Congress had the power to 
do this. 

The Missouri Compromise. — The question of slavery 
in Missouri caused angry debate in Congress and an intense 
bitterness throughout the whole country. Many feared 
that the Union would crumble to pieces. While excitement 
was at its height, Maine, with the consent of Massachusetts, 
of which it had previously been a part, applied for admission 
as a separate state. As Maine would be a free-labor state, 
the Southerners would not allow it to be admitted, unless 
to preserve the balance Missouri was admitted with slavery. 
So Congress agreed upon the Missouri Compromise in 
1820. The compromise allowed Missouri to come in as a 
state with slaves, but prohibited slavery elsewhere in the 
Louisiana purchase north of latitude 36° 30', which is the 
southern boundary of Missouri. Maine was admitted as 
a free-labor state. 

The Missouri Compromise, so famous in our history, 
stood for many years, though like most compromises, it 
gave satisfaction to neither side 


HOW AMERICANS LIVED IN 1820 


249 


































































2 so HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


Topics and Questions 

1. What was the population of the leading cities in 1820? Describe 
the streets and the homes in the cities. What were the pastimes in 
the cities? In the rural communities?. Describe the fashionable dress 
of the times. 

2. What were the facilities for travel in 1820? How was freight 
transported? 

3. Describe the' postal service, the newspapers, and the schools of 
the period. How was the reform of prisons and penalties begun? 

4. Name three great American writers of the period and the titles 
of one or more of their works. 

5. What is meant by the “Era of Good Feeling”? What question 
disturbed the good feeling? What interests helped to fasten slavery 
upon the South? What was the real cause of the controversy over 
the admission of Missouri? 

6. In what definite ways did the Northern and the Southern states 
differ in their political views? Name the states of the Union prior to 
1820, stating which prohibited slavery and which allowed it. How 
had the balance between free-labor states and slave-labor states been 
maintained? How did the expansion of territory affect the question 
of slavery? State the Missouri Compromise and criticise it. 

Important Date: 

1820. Adoption of the Missouri Compromise. 


CHAPTER XXII 

NEW NEIGHBORS AND NEW PROBLEMS 

Spanish American States Separate from Spain. — The 

Spanish colonies in America were long-suffering. The 
colonial policy of Great Britain, on account of which the 
United States fought for and won its independence, was 
generous in comparison with the colonial policy of Spain 
(see page 109). All trade of the Spanish colonies was 
controlled absolutely in the interest of the parent country, 
and exorbitant taxes were collected for the benefit of Spain. 
Three hundred years of extortion and tyranny had brought 
the Spanish colonies in America very near to exhaustion. 
About the time of our revolution, Charles III, one of the 
best of the Spanish kings, reformed his colonial system, 
and better times seemed in store for Spanish America. 
Soon after Ferdinand VII, the grandson of Charles III, 
ascended the throne. Napoleon Bonaparte, as a part of his 
scheme for world power, invaded Spain, deposed Ferdinand, 
and placed Jerome Bonaparte, his eldest brother, on the 
throne of Spain 1808. Napoleon made no secret of his 
purpose of wringing from the Spanish colonies all the money 
that he could. When the news of what had happened in 
the mother country reached America, the Spanish colonies 
rose in revolt against the Bonapartist king. Pinning their 
faith to the promises of the old monarchy, they declared 
their allegiance to Ferdinand. For years the struggle went 
on with the Bonapartists unable to put down the insurrec¬ 
tion. The defeat of Napoleon in 1814 restored Ferdinand 
to his throne. The young king showed no gratitude for 
the loyalty of the colonies, for instead of following the 
liberal policy of his grandfather, he began immediately to 
oppress them in every manner possible. Thereupon, Mexico, 

251 


*52 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Venezuela, Colombia, Argentine, Peru, and Chile declared 
themselves independent of Spain. In vain Ferdinand used 
the most atrocious methods in trying to suppress the revo¬ 
lutions; by 1822 these countries had practically established 
their independence. 

Democracy vs. Autocracy. — The monarchs of conti¬ 
nental Europe had long ruled under the theory that they 
had received by the “grace of God” the sole right to govern; 
that whatever freedom the people enjoyed was only a privi¬ 
lege which the king had given and which he might take 
away. In this theory the people had acquiesced. But now, 
as a result of the French Revolution, the people of all the 
countries of continental Europe were becoming restless. 
It was dawning upon them that the theory of the divine 
right of kings was all wrong; that the power of government 
comes not from kings, but from the people themselves. 

The conflict between democracy and autocracy was spread¬ 
ing. In every country of continental Europe there was revo¬ 
lution or threat of revolution. The autocratic monarchs 
grew alarmed. They resolved to use their combined military 
forces to suppress revolution in whatever nation it showed 
itself, for they knew that if revolution should succeed in 
one country it would encourage revolution in another, and 
in the end they would all be shorn of their despotic power. 
Their joint agreement to crush the growing spirit of 
democracy is known as the Quadruple Alliance, and its 
leaders were the sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, 
When Spain found that she could not reduce to obedience 
her rebellious provinces in America, she called upon the 
Quadruple Alliance to help her. 

The Concern of the United States. — The people of oui 
country sympathized deeply with the Spanish Americans 
in their struggle for independence. Self-interest was added 
to sympathy when they saw the danger to themselves should 
the Quadruple Alliance help Spain to recover her lost colo¬ 
nies. The autocratic monarchs of Europe looked with ill 
favor upon the United States. To their minds the American 


NEW NEIGHBORS AND NEW PROBLEMS 


253 


Revolution and the successful republic that it brought into 
existence had been the starting of the spirit of democracy 
that had spread to France and thence to the rest of Europe. 
The people of the United States foresaw that if the Quad¬ 
ruple Alliance should crush the Spanish American republics, it 
might then hope to crush the United States and put an end 
to democracy in all parts of the world. The fact that Russia 
had planned to seize more territory in America increased 
this fear. Possessed already of what is now known as 
Alaska, the Czar of Russia laid claim to the Oregon country 
and even planted a colony on the California coast. 

The Monroe Doctrine. — President Monroe determined 
to forestall the European monarchs. In a message to 
Congress, in 1823, he gave notice to the world that the United 
States would maintain the following principles: (1) No more 
European colonies should be planted on either American 
continent; (2) If other nations should assist Spain in her 
attempt to re-conquer the Spanish American republics, the 
United States would aid these republics; (3) The United 
States would not interfere with the internal affairs of 
any European state. Such was the origin of the Monroe 
Doctrine. 

Great Britain had not taken part in the scheme of the 
Quadruple Alliance to suppress the rising spirit of democ¬ 
racy; on the contrary, the British government had en¬ 
couraged the United States to take a stand in defense of 
the Spanish American republics. The British people, de¬ 
siring the South American trade, received the Monroe Doc¬ 
trine with much praise. The effect of the doctrine upon the 
absolute monarchs was immediate. Russia abandoned its 
purpose of gaining more territory in America and the 
Quadruple Alliance gave no aid to Spain. Never again did 
Spain get a foothold on continental America. The prin¬ 
ciples of the Monroe Doctrine have become a part of the 
policy of the United States. 

Influence of the Plain People on Politics. — During the 
colonial period, every colony restricted the suffrage. The 


254 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

most common restriction was that a man should own a 
certain amount of property in order to vote. When the 
states entered the Union they continued to restrict the 
suffrage. By 1824, however, most of the states had removed 

all restrictions; and the 
influence of the large 
number of so-called com¬ 
mon people, now given 
the vote, was shown in 
the presidential election 
of that year. Hitherto 
the candidates of a 
political party for Presi¬ 
dent and Vice President 
had been nominated at a 
meeting, or caucus, of the 
members of the party in 
Congress. The plan was 
not satisfactory to the 
country at large, for it was charged that by this plan the 
politicians gathered at Washington named the candidate 
without giving the people an opportunity to express their 
choice. So unpopular had the plan become that in 1824 
a caucus called to name a candidate for President was at¬ 
tended by only a few members of Congress, and its nomi¬ 
nation of William H. Crawford of Georgia was not greeted 
very enthusiastically throughout the country. State legis¬ 
latures and state conventions endorsed three other candi¬ 
dates: Henry Clay of Kentucky; John Quincy Adams of 
Massachusetts, son of President John Adams; and Andrew 
Jackson of Tennessee, the “hero of the battle of New Or¬ 
leans.” 

As there was but one political party, the Republican 
(Democratic), the campaign was solely a contest of persons. 
Crawford, Clay, and Adams had long been associated with 
the holding of high office in Washington. Jackson, a man 
of humble origin, who had risen to be a military leader, had 





NEW NEIGHBORS AND NEW PROBLEMS 


255 


had little to do with politics. The plain people supported 
Jackson, and such was their strength that he received the 
largest number of electoral votes. As he did not receive 
a majority, it devolved upon the House of Representatives 
to elect the President. 1 

Jackson’s Friends Disappointed. — The Constitution 
provides that the House of 
ing the President, shall choose 
from the three candidates who 
received the highest number of 
electoral votes. As Clay was 
the candidate who stood fourth, 
he could not be voted for. Clay 
threw his influence to Adams, 
who was elected. Jackson’s 
followers were indignant; they 
felt that as their candidate 
had received the largest elec¬ 
toral vote he should have 
been chosen. When Adams ap¬ 
pointed Clay Secretary of State, 
the friends of Jackson, from one 
end of the country to the other, set up the cry that Adams 
and Clay had made a corrupt bargain. To-day no one be¬ 
lieves that these eminent men made such a bargain, but the 
charge followed them to plague them the rest of their lives. 

The Doctrine of States’ Rights. — With the satisfactory 
settlement of all foreign questions that had held the 
public mind from the beginning of the republic, domestic 
matters came to the front. Most of these matters, for the 
next fifty years, revolved around the question of whether 
or not the United States government should be restricted 
to the powers expressly granted it by the Constitution. 

From the first there had been two views of the Consti- 

1 At only one other time has the House of Representatives been 
called upon to choose a President; namely, on the occasion of the first 
election of Jefferson (see note page 203). 


Representatives, in select- 



John Quincy Adams 



256 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

tution (see page 192). There were those who believed that 
for the safety and development of the country, a strong 
central government was needed; and they argued that the 
United States government should use all implied powers; 
that is, powers that would aid in carrying out the powers 
expressly granted by the Constitution. On the other hand, 
there were those who thought that a strong central govern¬ 
ment, being removed from the influence of the people, might 
become a government that would oppress them. Therefore, 
they argued that for the best protection of the people all 
powers not expressly granted to the Federal government 
should be left with the home, or state government. This 
theory is known as the doctrine of “states’ rights.” 

The Sections Hold Different Views. — When the states 
were colonies they regarded their colonial governments as 
safeguards to their liberty. When they entered the Union 
they still looked to their home governments to protect their 
interests, and consequently whatever powers they had given 
to the Federal government they gave very reluctantly. 
For this reason the doctrine of states’ rights was strong in 
every section of the Union for the first thirty years following 
the birth of the republic. It was particularly strong in New 
England just preceding and during the War of 1812, when 
the commercial measures of the Federal government and 
the war itself were regarded as injurious to the inteiests of 
that section. We have seen how, during the War of 1812, 
New England states carried the doctrine of states’ rights so 
far as to nullify Federal laws and even to threaten secession 
(see Chapter XIX). Soon there came a change of view in 
the North. Along with the industrial development of that 
section, there arose from the people of the North the demand 
that the Federal government aid their enterprises. Such aid 
could be given only by allowing the general government 
powers not expressly granted by the Constitution; conse¬ 
quently, the North generally came to believe in a strong 
central government. On the other hand, in the South, 
which was wholly agricultural, and which therefore would 


NEW NEIGHBORS AND NEW PROBLEMS 257 

not be benefited by governmental aid, the doctrine of 
states’ rights took even deeper root. In this manner the 
question became largely 
sectional. The chief ex¬ 
ponent of the states’ rights 
doctrine was John C. Cal¬ 
houn of South Carolina. 

The Tariff.— One of the 
chief matters upon which 
the people differed was the 
tariff. As has been ex¬ 
plained, the tariff is a tax 
placed on foreign goods 
brought into a country for 
sale. At first the tariff was 
levied to raise money for 
support of the general government, and so long as America 
had no manufactures, but bought most goods from abroad, 
the tax was low and caused no complaint. But by Monroe’s 
time the manufacturers in America had become so influential 
that they were pressing Congress to enact a tariff for their 
protection — that is, a tax so high that it would shut out 
foreign goods. They urged that the home industries, thus 
relieved of foreign competition, would grow faster and that 
their growth would develop the country. The advocates of 
states’ rights, besides opposing a tariff for protection on the 
ground that the Constitution did not permit it, claimed that 
such a tariff was unfair, since it taxed one set of people for 
the benefit of another. 

Opposition of the South. — In response to the appeal of 
American manufacturers, Congress during the administra¬ 
tions of Monroe and John Quincy Adams, placed high tariffs 
on foreign goods and on raw materials used in manufactur¬ 
ing, such as iron, lead, wool, and hemp. The high tariff 
laws benefited the North and the Northwest where most of 
the factories then were and where most of the raw material 
was produced, and consequently these sections favored them. 



John C. Calhoun 


2 58 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


The South, whose crops were sold in foreign lands, looked 
upon high tariffs as unjust. Southerners became aroused 
in opposition. The feeling was most intense in South Caro¬ 
lina where the legislature threatened to nullify the law un¬ 
less Congress gave relief by reducing the tariff. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Give briefly the reasons of the revolt of the Spanish-American 
colonies against the mother country and describe the result. How did 
the autocratic monarchs of Europe feel toward the rising spirit of 
democracy in Europe and America? What did they plan to do? How 
did the United States view their plans? Give the principles of the 
Monroe Doctrine and tell what effect the doctrine had upon Europe, 

2. For a long time the so-called common people were not allowed 
to vote. Explain how their influence was shown in the first election in 
which they were allowed generally to vote. Why has the election of 
1824 been called a contest of men and not of parties? 

3. Explain the difference between the two views held of the Con¬ 
stitution. Why did the sections hold different views? 

4. What is a tariff? What are the arguments for and against a 
tariff? Describe the effect of high tariffs upon the South. 

important Date: 

1823. Monroe Doctrine proclaimed. 


CHAPTER XXIII 

THE VOICE OF THE PEOPLE 



Birthplace of Andrew Jackson 


Election of Jackson. — The friends of Andrew Jack- 
son, incensed at the manner in which they claimed he was 
treated in the previous presidential election, had early begun 
a campaign to have him elected in 1828. John Quincy 
Adams was again 
his opponent. 

The supporters of 
Jackson were 
assuming the 
name of Demo¬ 
crats, a name first 
given the Republi¬ 
cans in derision. 

The Adams men 
called themselves 
National Republicans. This time Jackson was elected. 

Andrew Jackson was the first President to come from the 
region west of the Alleghany Mountains, and his election 
was an evidence of the rising influence of that section. 
Jackson was typical of the new West. While a young 
man he had removed to Tennessee when that state was still 
on the frontier, and had shared in all the hardships of border 
life. He had become famous as an Indian fighter and as 
victor over the British at New Orleans. 

Jackson a “Man of the People.”— But Jackson repre¬ 
sented more than the new West; he represented the plain 
people everywhere. Born in poverty and reared in want and 
with little schooling, he had risen to distinction through 
sheer force of character. As one of the plain people he had 
been claimed by that class as their own particular candidate. 


26o HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


They had hailed him as the man who, if elected, would 
destroy the power of the class which they called aristocratic 
and which they claimed had too long controlled the govern¬ 
ment against the interests of the masses. 

The candidacy of Jackson in 1828 was strengthened by the 
charge that had gone out that he was defrauded of the 
election four years previously by politicians and aristocrats. 
The country was called upon to avenge the wrong by de¬ 
feating John Quincy Adams, the chief among politicians and 
aristocrats. The appeal proved irresistible. Jackson was 
swept into office by a large majority. The plain people who 
had so nearly won four years before were now triumphant. 

The Scramble for Office. — Since the people re¬ 
garded Jackson’s victory as their own, they flocked to 
Washington from all parts of the country to witness 
the inauguration. The crowd overran the capital. Not 
all were disinterested in their enthusiasm for Jack- 
son. Many, very many, wanted office. They could 
not see wherein lay the victory if they could not get the 
offices. They demanded of Jackson that he turn out the 
office-holders and give the places to those who had voted 
for him and, as Jackson was willing, a scramble for 
office began. Such a thing had never occurred before. 
With the exception of a few changes made by Jefferson to 
give both political parties a share in the administration of 
the government, the incoming of a President had not been 
followed by the dismissal of efficient office-holders to make 
places for political supporters. Jackson removed more men 
from office than all his predecessors combined had done. 

The “Spoils System.” — “To the victors belong the 
spoils” was the cry of the victorious party; and Jackson’s 
ready compliance brought to American politics the vicious 
“spoils system.” Since other political parties, when vic¬ 
torious, adopted the system, the evil took such deep root 
that it became most difficult to destroy. Nothing has so 
demoralized American politics or so lowered the efficiency 
of governmental work as the practice of appointing persons 



ANDREW JACKSON 

















THE VOICE OF THE PEOPLE 


261 


to office, not on their merit, but as a reward for their political 
support. 1 

Nullification in South Carolina. — Meanwhile, excite¬ 
ment in the South over the tariff law had not subsided. 
The belief that the state should nullify it steadily grew in 
South Carolina. The right of nullification was, in 1830, 
the subject of a great debate in the United States Senate 
between Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina, in favor, and 
Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, in opposition. 

South Carolina was still waiting to see whether Congress 
would give relief by reducing the tariff (see page 258). 
The Tariff Act passed by 
Congress in 1832 reduced the 
rate in some particulars, but 
it was still a tariff higher than 
was necessary for revenue. 

Thereupon, the state of South 
Carolina, in convention assem¬ 
bled, declared by solemn ordi¬ 
nance that protective tariffs 
“are null, void and no law, 
nor binding upon this state, 
its officers or citizens,” and 
forbade the collection of the 
tariff tax within the state after 
February 1, 1833. The ordi¬ 
nance also declared that if the United States used force, 
South Carolina would consider itself separated from the 
Union, and would organize an independent government. 
The state was agitated from one end to the other. Volunteers 
strengthened the militia for defense. 

Jackson Opposes Nullification. — As has been shown, 
the doctrine of the right of a state to nullify a law of the 

1 Public opinion is steadily condemning the “spoils system." The 
civil service law, which provides for the filling of many positions in the 
government service through tests for efficiency, is doing much to 
remedy the evil. 



Daniel Webster 



262 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES’ 

United States was not new. More than half the states then 
in the Union had, in one form or another, proclaimed the 
right. 1 But President Jackson did not believe in the right 
of nullification, and he was determined that the tariff law 
should be enforced. He issued a proclamation appealing 
to the people of South Carolina to desist from their course, 
and finding that it had no effect, he asked Congress for 
power to use the army of the United States to sustain 
the law. 

A bill for the purpose, known as the “Force Bill” was 
accordingly introduced into Congress in 1833. This fur¬ 
nished occasion for another great debate in the Senate on 
the question of states’ rights under the Constitution. Again 
Daniel Webster argued against states’ rights, and this time 
the champion of the doctrine was John C. Calhoun. Jack¬ 
son, in anticipation of the passage of the Force Bill, had 
already prepared to send troops to South Carolina, and the 
country stood aghast at the prospect of civil war. 

The Compromise. — In this emergency Henry Clay poured 
oil on the troubled waters by coming forward with a com* 
promise bill, which Congress passed. The bill provided 
that the tariff should be reduced gradually so that by the 
end of ten years it would provide only for the expenses of 
the government. At the same time, however, the Force 
Bill was enacted in order that the authority of the govern¬ 
ment might be sustained. Clay’s compromise removed 
the cause of the trouble, and South Carolina rescinded its 
nullification ordinance. 

Jackson Reelected. — Before the nullification trouble in 
South Carolina, Jackson had been (1832) reelected President. 
His supporters no longer called themselves Republicans, 
but Democrats. The other wing of the old Republican 
party supported Henry Clay for President. In this cam¬ 
paign the candidates were nominated by national con* 

1 Georgia, Virginia, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts,, 
Connecticut, Rhode Island, Ohio, New York, North Carolina, South 
•Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, and Maine. 


THE VOICE OF THE PEOPLE 263 

ventions — a method of making nominations that has ever 
since been followed. 

The Country Lacking a Safe Currency. — The people 
had become very much prejudiced against the national 
bank. President Jackson, who shared the prejudice, vetoed 
an Act of Congress renewing the bank’s charter. When 
the bank came to an end in 1836, there was nothing to take 
its place in furnishing the country with a sound cur¬ 
rency. The state banks were not under the control of the 
Federal government, and most of them were conducted with 
lax methods and few safeguards. 

Bank notes, which are merely promises of a bank to pay 
the bearer in gold or silver coin — a kind of paper money — 
were issued by the state banks to an amount far beyond the 
means of the banks to redeem. The abundance of cheap 
money was mistaken for prosperity, and people rushed into 
speculation. Railroads, canals, factories, all kinds of enter¬ 
prises were wildly projected. There was great speculation 
in public lands, which, when purchased, were divided and 
sold again for city lots, factory sites, railroad stations, or 
farms that were to be brought close to a market through the 
locomotive or canal. 

The Panic of 1837. — Near the close of Jackson’s ad¬ 
ministration two events occurred which hastened the crash 
sure to follow such wild speculation: (1) President Jackson, 
becoming distrustful of the paper money of the state banks, 
issued his famous “specie circular,’’ ordering that only 
specie — that is, gold and silver coin — should be received 
in payment for public lands; (2) The government having 
become clear of debt, Congress devised the plan of loaning 
the surplus funds to the states. The loans were to be made 
in four installments during the year 1837. These funds had 
already been placed in state banks, and the banks had loaned 
them out. Great pressure was thus put upon the banks for 
specie, for the people demanded it for the purchase of lands, 
and the government demanded it to loan to the states. The 
run upon the banks was more than could be withstood, and 


264 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


every bank in the country suspended specie payment — that 
is, refused to redeem its paper money in gold or silver coin. 1 

The business of the whole country was affected dis« 
astrously. Banks could no longer extend credit, and people 
could not pay their debts. Enterprises which had been 
begun came to a sudden end and laborers were thrown out 
of employment. Even the government could not meet its 
obligations, for the remainder of its funds deposited with the 
banks was lost. 

Martin Van Buren, President. — Jackson had retired 
from the Presidency. His influence was still so dominant 


over the people, that he 
virtually selected his succes¬ 
sor, Martin Van Buren, of 
New York. The new Presi¬ 
dent who had to face, upon 
his inauguration in 1837, 
the great panic, called Con¬ 
gress in extra session to 
remedy the state of affairs. 
All that Congress could do 
was to make arrangements 
to meet the current ex¬ 
penses of the government. 



Finally, in 1840, Van 
Buren persuaded Congress 


Martin Van Buren 


to establish an “independent treasury,” or, as we know it to¬ 
day, a “sub-treasury.” This system protects the govern¬ 
ment funds by placing them in vaults in charge of heavily 
bonded officials. The distress in business, however, con¬ 
tinued until the end of Van Buren’s term. 

The Abolitionists. — The year 1831 saw the birth of the 
abolition movement. William Lloyd Garrison began in 
Boston the publication of the Liberator , a paper having for 

1 The states received three installments of the loan before the 
collapse came. They wasted the money in unwise enterprises. It 
has never been returned to the general government. 


THE VOICE OF THE PEOPLE 


265 

its object the emancipation of slaves. There had previously 
been men and societies in the North, especially among the 
Quakers, who earnestly strove for abolition by voluntary 
and legal means, but they were few, and their efforts had 
not been encouraged. 

Congress had declared in 1790 (see page 192) that it could 
not abolish slavery in the states. The commercial interests 
of the North, and particularly the manufacturers of goods 
from cotton produced by slave labor, had been content for 
years to let the slavery question rest; now Garrison’s paper 
started a movement of violent nature. 

Extreme Views of the Abolitionists. — The new aboli¬ 
tionists, though few, were aggressive. They took the 
ground that as slavery was wrong it should be abolished 
without paying the slave owner for the loss of his property, 
regardless of the protection given it by the Constitution 
In one of their first public declarations (1836) they cried, 
“War has broken out between the South and the North, 
not easily to be terminated. The sword now drawn will 
not be sheathed until victory, entire victory, is ours or 
theirs.” 1 They wanted the Union dissolved, if the Union 
meant the continuation of slavery. Garrison pronounced 
the Constitution “a covenant with death and an agreement 
with hell,” — “the most bloody and heaven-daring compact 
ever contrived,” — and “in the nature of things, and accord¬ 
ing to the law of God, null and void from the beginning.” 

Effect upon the South. — The freeing of slaves was not 
uncommon in the South, and societies organized in that 
section to promote it were active. But free negroes had 
already given trouble, and the Southerners thought it dan¬ 
gerous to increase their number while the abolitionists were 
exciting them. The Southern people might well feel alarm 
concerning the effect upon the slaves of the violent senti¬ 
ments of the abolitionists. Only recently (1831) slaves 
had risen in insurrection in Virginia, under the lead of a 

1 Appendix to Congressional Globe, 24th Congress, Session I, 
page 616. 


266 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

negro named Nat Turner, and murdered more than sixty 
white persons. Slave owners, always claiming the protec¬ 
tion that was guaranteed them by the Constitution, now 
demanded that the abolitionists and their publications be 
suppressed. 

The Negro in the North. — Even in the North the abo¬ 
litionists found as yet but little encouragement. The busi¬ 
ness man wanting Southern trade, and the politician wanting 
Southern votes, frowned upon any movement unfriendly 
to Southern institutions. The Church held aloof. 

Nor was there in the North much real sympathy for the 
negro except as a race of slaves. In no Northern state 
did the black man enjoy full citizenship. In some states he 
could not vote; in others he could not appear as a witness 
except in cases in which negroes were parties; in others he 
could not bear arms; and in still others he was to be publicly 
flogged if caught out at night at nine o’clock. Education 
was often denied him, and all employments, except the most 
menial, were practically closed to him. 

The Abolitionists Condemned both North and South. — 
When the abolitionists first pushed their cause, they met 
with antagonism in the North. They were sometimes 
mobbed; Garrison himself received rough treatment at the 
hands of a lawless crowd in Boston. But they persevered 
and increased steadily in numbers and influence. Their 
constant agitation aroused the opposition of the North to 
slavery. Though the motives of the abolitionists were 
honest, their methods were extreme. Their strong assaults 
upon the South drew the Southern people together in de¬ 
fense of slavery and made a peaceful solution of the slavery 
question practically impossible. 

Growth of the Abolition Movement. — In a few years the 
abolitionists had become so strong throughout the North that 
they were often able to turn the scales in closely contested 
elections. With their growth in numbers and in political 
influence they increased the agitation of the slavery question. 
They presented to Congress petition after petition against 


THE VOICE OF THE PEOPLE 267 

slavery — so many, in fact, that Congress felt it wise to 
adopt a rule that no more such petitions would be received. 
But the abolitionists continued to present them through 
ex-President John Quincy Adams, at that time a member of 
the House. 

The petitions asked that slavery be abolished in the 
District of Columbia and the Territories, that new states be 
denied admission unless without slavery, and that the slave 
trade between the states be prohibited. In the hope of 
restoring quiet, Congress, in 1838, declared that it had no 
right to do these things, and in strong terms condemned 
further agitation of them. 

Rise of the Whigs. — The decided stand taken by Presi¬ 
dent Jackson against the national bank and other measures 
of the “National Republican” wing of the Republican 
(Democratic) party caused the formation of a new political 
party, known as the Whig, which the National Republicans 
joined. The Whig party advocated internal improvements, 1 
protective tariffs, and a national bank. The wing of the 
old Republican party which followed Jackson in opposing 
such measures had retained the name Democrat. In 
political views the Democratic party was the successor of 
the Republican party as organized by Jefferson, and the 
Whig the successor of the Federalist party as organized by 
Hamilton. 

The Whigs Swept into Office. — The first presidential 
election in which the Whigs appeared was that of 1836, 
when Van Buren was elected. In the contest of 1840 the 
Whigs nominated as their candidate for President William 
Henry Harrison of Ohio, the “hero of Tippecanoe.” The 
Democrats renominated Van Buren. This campaign was 
more exciting than any that had previously occurred. It 
is known as the “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” campaign, 
because a Democratic newspaper, referring to the simplicity 
of Harrison’s border life, suggested that he would prefer a 

1 Internal improvements: the building of roads and canals^ and the 
improving of waterways by the general government. 


268 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


tog cabin and a barrel of cider to the Presidency. The 
Whigs made use of the sneer to turn the tables on 
the Democrats. Twelve years before the Democrats had 
elected Jackson on the plea that he was the plain people’s 
candidate who would turn the aristocrats out. Now the 
Whigs claimed that Harrison was the candidate of the 
plain people. The log cabin, the cider barrel, and the coon- 
skin became the symbols of the Whigs, and “reform” 
their cry to victory. They described Van Buren as an aristo¬ 
crat who had caused the panic of 1837 while growing rich 
himself. 

All Jackson’s influence could not stem the tide that set 
in against Van Buren. The people, burdened by financial 
distress, turned to the Whig promises of reform and carried 
their candidate into office by a large majority. 

Death of President Harrison. — President Harrison was 
old and in feeble health. The excitement of the campaign 
and the inauguration, together with pressure from office 
seekers (for the Whigs followed the practice for which they 
had condemned the Democrats under Jackson), proved too 
severe a test for his strength. He died just one month 
after his inauguration (1841). The death of the President 
was a profound shock to the country. John Tyler, of 
Virginia, who had been elected Vice President on the ticket 
with Harrison, took the oath, and assumed the duties of 
President two days later. 

The Quarrel between Tyler and the Whigs. — Although 
Tyler was elected by the Whigs, he had been a Democrat, 
and soon a fierce quarrel broke out between the President 
and the Whig majority in Congress. Tyler vetoed in quick 
succession two bills providing for the establishment of a new 
national bank, for he shared the Democratic view that 
such a measure would be unconstitutional. When Tyler 
endeavored to secure the adoption of a financial system of 
his own, Congress refused to pass the necessary act, and the 
breach became complete. The quarrel between the execu¬ 
tive and Congress lasted throughout the presidential term, 


THE VOICE OF THE PEOPLE 


269 


making the enactment of any important legislation almost 
impossible. 

Tyler’s administration was able, however, to perfect with 
Great Britain, in 1842, a treaty which settled the boundary 
line of the United States on the northeast. The line agreed 
upon is that which to-day separates Maine from Canada. 



William Henry Harrison 


John Tyler 


The treaty was made by Daniel Webster, who was our 
Secretary of State at the time, and Lord Ashburton, who 
represented Great Britain; hence, it is called the Webster* 
Ashburton Treaty. 


Topics and Questions 


1. Who was Andrew Jackson? Why was he elected President? 
Give every reason you can. What men wished to share his good 
fortune? Describe the evils of the “spoils system.” 

2. What led to the ordinance, passed by South Carolina legislature 
in 1832, to nullify the United States Tariff Act within her borders? 
What great men debated in 1830 on questions of the Constitution, of 
the Union, and of the right of nullification? What was the ground 
taken by each? What states up to this time had proclaimed the 
doctrine of nullification? What did Clay’s compromise do to settle 
this South Carolina case? 

3. What change was made in the election of 1832 in the method of 
nominating candidates for President? 

4. Relate the story of the panic of 1837. Could Congress have 
prevented it by any law it might have passed in 1836 or 1837? Describe 


270 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

the specie circular; the surplus loan to states; the runs on banks. 
How did the panic affect the whole industrial life of the United States 
that year? What President had to face the panic of 1837? Was he 
responsible for the panic? What was done in Van Buren’s administra¬ 
tion to protect the government’s funds? 

5. What stand had Congress taken on the slavery question in 1790? 
What group of people was unwilling to let the question rest? What 
method did they advocate for getting rid of slavery? How w T as it 
received by people in general in the North and the South? By politi¬ 
cians? By business men? By the Church? 

6. What was the treatment of the free negro in the North? Picture 
the life of the negro in slavery in the South. How did the agitation of 
the abolitionists affect the slaves’ condition in the South? Describe 
the growth of the abolitionists. 

7. How did the political party, known as the Whig, come into 
existence? Why were the Whigs swept into office in 1840? What 
hastened the death of President William Henry Harrison? Who 
succeeded him in the Presidency? Would the Whig party have voted 
for John Tyler as President? 

Project Exercises 

1. Write a brief account of the life of Andrew Jackson. (See 
biography in appendix.) 

2. Compare nullification in South Carolina in 1832 with the Ken¬ 
tucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798-1799 and with the action of the 
Hartford Convention of 1814. 

3. Find out whether slavery was finally abolished without payment 
to the owners for the slaves. 

Important Dates: 

1828. Andrew Jackson, a “man of the people,” elected President. 

1831. Publication begun of the Liberator, the first organ of the 
abolitionists. 

1832. Nullification in South Carolina. 


CHAPTER XXIV 

THE SOUTHWEST AND THE NORTHWEST 

The Great Southwest. — The southwestern part of the 
United States, which is rapidly developing into one of the 
most important sections of the country, made but slow 
advancement under the three centuries of Spanish rule; 
yet it is a land of interesting history. In the extreme south¬ 
west — mainly in New Mexico and Arizona — are found 
remains of prehistoric villages built upon lofty cliffs or 



View of Pueblo, Taos, N.M. 


upon ledges in the rocky sides of great canons. The 
people who dwelt in these villages—“cliff dwellers” they 
are called — had already disappeared when the Spaniards, 
began to explore the Southwest; but their descendants, 
the Pueblo Indians, are still living in the region. 

At the time that the Spaniards found them, the Pueblo 
Indians were much more advanced than the other Indians 

271 







272 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 



Pueblo Indian Pottery 


of the United States (see note, page 12). They could weave 
and spin fairly, well, and they wore cotton clothes. They 
planted on quite a large scale, and it was from them that the 
white men who later moved into 
the far Southwest learned to 
irrigate the arid lands that are 
common there. The Pueblo 
Indians also made use of the adobe 
house which the white settlers 
adopted. 

Early History of the South¬ 
west. —Before De Soto penetrated 
the forests of the Southern states in his fruitless search for 
gold, other adventuresome Spaniards had already explored 
Texas and New Mexico. In the year that De Soto died 
on the banks of the Mississippi, Spaniards from the city of 
Mexico visited California. At the same time the Spanish 
officer Coronado, in searching for the seven cities of 
Cibola, crossed Arizona and New Mexico and traveled prob¬ 
ably as far north as Kansas and Nebraska (see page 20). 

Two years before the English landed at Jamestown, 
Spaniards coming up from the city of Mexico had founded 
Santa Fe, New Mexico, which, next to St. Augustine, is the 
oldest town in the United States. The planting of settlements 
in the Southwest was exceedingly slow, because the Spaniards 
preferred to seek their fortunes farther south in Mexico, 
and in Central America and Peru, where gold had been 
found in abundance. Settlements in the Southwest usually 
began with Catholic missions, and long consisted mainly 
of priests and soldiers. Scattered over so vast an area, 
they were sometimes thousands of miles apart. Whatever 
was accomplished toward developing the country was done 
chiefly by the piiests. Besides administering to the Indians, 
they raised cattle and horses on ranches and cultivated 
extensively vineyards and orange and olive groves. 

Texas. — Spain had always included the Southwest, 
from Texas to California, in her province of Mexico, but 






THE SOUTHWEST AND THE NORTHWEST 


273 

the United States, upon the purchase of Louisiana, laid 
claim to Texas as a part of the Louisiana territory. How¬ 
ever, in the treaty made with Spain in 1819, whereby Florida 
was acquired, the United States abandoned its claim to 
Texas. When Mexico threw off the yoke of Spain, Texas 
became one of the states of the Mexican republic. 



Plan of a Spanish Mission Settlement 


Americans in Texas. — Even before Mexico had gained 
her independence, Americans, in their restless push west¬ 
ward, had been attracted to the fertile lands of Texas. One 
of the earliest of the American emigrants to Texas was 
Moses Austin, a native of Connecticut. In 1820 the Spanish 
government made him a grant of land in Texas upon which 
to found a colony of Americans. He died soon after, but 
his son, Stephen F. Austin, took up his father’s unfinished 
work. When Mexico threw off the Spanish yoke, the 
younger Austin secured a renewal of his grant from the 
Mexican government. Grants to other American colonies 
were- secured, and in a few years there were more than 
twenty thousand Americans in Texas. Most of the emh 
grants went from the South and carried their slaves with 
them. 

Texas Revolts against Mexico. — The continual pour¬ 
ing of Americans into Texas aroused the jealousy of the 
Mexican authorities, who forbade further immigration and 
in other ways so oppressed the settlers that in 1833 the 






274 HISTORY OP THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Texans rose in revolution. Volunteers from the states aided 
them. In 1836 Santa Anna, President of Mexico, entered 
Texas with a large army. With overwhelming numbers he 
fell upon the Alamo, an old Spanish mission near San An¬ 
tonio, used by the revolutionists as a fort. Every man of 
the small garrison fell in its defense. A few days later 
Santa Anna, at Goliad, put to death three hundred Texans 
who had surrendered on condition that their lives should 
be spared. 

San Jacinto. — “Remember the Alamo! Remember 
Goliad!” became the battle cry of the Texans. Inspired 
by the martyrdom of their country¬ 
men, they completely routed the 
Mexican army at San Jacinto, April 
21, 1836. The Texans were com¬ 
manded in this battle by General 
Sam Houston, a native of Virginia 
and a former Governor of Tennessee. 
Texas had already issued a declara¬ 
tion of independence and formed a 
republic. Soon after the battle of 
San Jacinto Houston was elected 
President. The independence of 
Texas was recognized by the United 
States in 1837, and shortly afterward by Great Britain, 
France, and Belgium. 

The Republic of Texas. — The Texans, who were largely 
our own people, wished their republic to become part of the 
United States. This fact, together with the popular idea 
of the times that the United States should extend its terri¬ 
tory, caused immediate agitation for the annexation of 
Texas to the United States. The fear that, unless it were 
annexed, Great Britain or France would gain control of the 
new republic, added strength to the movement. On the 
other hand, there was opposition in the North because 
Texas was a slaveholding country. It was also objected 
that annexation would probably involve the United States 



Sam Houston 


THE SOUTHWEST AND THE NORTHWEST 275 

in war with Mexico. For some years the question was dis¬ 
cussed without positive action being taken by the United 
States. 

Fremont’s Explorations. — The desire for the annexation 
of Texas was but a part of the desire for western expansion 
that had taken hold of 
the people. Enthusiasts 
declared that nothing 
should stop the United 
States from reaching the 
Pacific, or, as they ex¬ 
pressed the idea, it was 
the “manifest destiny” of 
the United States to 
extend from ocean to 
ocean. A great part of 
the Louisiana Purchase 
between Missouri and the 
Rocky Mountains had 
long been regarded as 
barren land, unfit for 
human habitation. Maps 
marked the immense stretch of prairie as the “Great 
American Desert.” The United States still claimed the 
Oregon country, which lay far beyond this supposed waste, 
though Americans had practically abandoned it, while Great 
Britain was filling it with settlers who came by way of 
Canada. In fact, many had come to think that it -was 
not worth while to hold our claim against Great Britain 
for a country so far away. The idea of our “manifest 
destiny” served to arouse new interest in the Far West. 
Congress made an appropriation of funds to provide for 
exploring the region and John C. Fremont, a young lieutenant 
of the army, was selected for the work. 

Between 1842 and 1846 he commanded three expeditions. 
He went over the Rocky Mountains and explored the Oregon 
country. He even went into territory then belonging to 



Showing territory claimed by Texas 









276 ill STORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


Mexico, visiting the valley of the Great Salt Lake and pene¬ 
trating into the southern part of California. Fremont’s 
achievements gained for him the name of “Pathfinder.” 

Whitman in Oregon. — Meanwhile Marcus Whitman, 
a missionary who had lived for many years among the 
Indians of Oregon, saw that unless Americans occupied 
that region Great Britain would soon control it, through her 
growing settlements there. He soon made a journey to the 
East and succeeded in returning to Oregon with a party 
of American settlers in 1843. Although it took six months to 
travel in wagons the two thousand miles between Missouri 
and the Oregon country, when immigration to the extreme 

Northwest had once set in, it 
gained such an impetus that 
in a few years there were 
twelve thousand Americans in 
Oregon. 

Annexation of Texas.— 

Already (1844) the election ®f 
a successor to President Tyler 
had occurred. The Demo¬ 
crats nominated James K 
Polk of Tennessee for Presi¬ 
dent and adopted a platform, 
the main plank of which advo¬ 
cated ‘ ‘ the reannexation of 
Texas and the reoccupation of 
Oregon.” 1 As there was no opposition among the voters to 
the Oregon claim, the main issue of the campaign was the 
annexation of Texas. This issue, the Whigs, who nominated 
Henry Clay, tried to avoid. 

Opposition to the annexation of Texas was very strong in 
the North, especially in New England. The Massachu- 

1 The United States had formerly claimed Texas as a part of the 
Louisiana Purchase, but had relinquished the claim in the treaty for 
the purchase of Florida (see page 273). Hence the catchy campaign 
phrase “reannexation of Texas.” 



James K. Polk 


THE SOUTHWEST AND THE NORTHWEST 277 

setts legislature threatened secession in case it took place. 
The antislavery people, who of course opposed bitterly 
the annexation of Texas, put a presidential ticket in the 
field. Their candidate drew enough votes in New York 
from Clay, who at least had not advocated annexation, to 
give the election to Polk, who was pledged to annexation. 
Many abolitionists did not vote at all, insisting that the 
only way to settle the slavery question was to dissolve the 
Union. 

President Tyler had already made a treaty of annexation 
with Texas, but the Senate had refused to ratify it. After 
the election had proved that the people were in favor of 
annexation, Congress passed an act for the admission of 
Texas as a state, and _ _ _ 



Tyler signed it three 
days before he retired 
from office (1845). 


Settlement of the 
Oregon Question. — By 

the treaty of 1818 (see 
page 222) the United 
States and Great Britain 
had agreed to occupy 
jointly the Oregon 
country for a period of 
ten years. Just before 
the end of the ten year 
term, the two powers 
decided to continue the 


The Oregon Compromise 


joint occupation indefi¬ 
nitely, each reserving the right to end the agreement by 
giving the other a year’s notice. 

Oregon extended from the northern boundary of Cali¬ 
fornia to latitude 54 0 40', the southern line of Alaska. The 
United States and Great Britain had, through discovery, 
exploration, and settlement, about equally strong claims 
to this territory. 








278 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


The most zealous expansionists urged that the United 
States should take possession of all Oregon. Their cry, 
“Fifty-four forty or fight,” struck a responsive chord. 
Influenced by a demand so popular, Congress gave Great 
Britain the year’s notice required for ending the joint occu¬ 
pancy. Many feared that war with Great Britain would 
follow, for it could not be hoped that the British would 
willingly surrender all Oregon. 

Fortunately, through a treaty made in 1846, a compromise 
was reached. The country was divided about equally 
between the two nations by extending the boundary east of 
the Rocky Mountains (the forty-ninth degree of latitude) 
westward to sea water, thence through the strait of Fuca 
to the Pacific Ocean. From the part of the Oregon country 
secured by the United States have since been formed the 
states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. The part re¬ 
tained by Great Britain forms a large part of the Canadian 
province of British Columbia. 

War with Mexico. —Unlike the Oregon question, the Texas 
question was not settled peaceably. Mexico still regarded 
Texas as a part of her territory; therefore the United States,, 
in the annexation of Texas, had committed, in the opinion 
of Mexico, an act of usurpation. Furthermore, there was a 
dispute about the boundary between Texas and Mexico 
The United States claimed that the western boundary of 
Texas extended to the Rio Grande River; Mexico claimed 
that it stopped at the Nueces River. Early in 1846, our 
government sent General Zachary Taylor with an army 
to occupy the disputed territory. The Mexicans demanded 
that Taylor should retire beyond the Nueces, and the 
American general declined. Soon afterward, Mexican troops 
came upon a scouting party of Americans on the Texas 
side of the Rio Grande and killed or captured all the de¬ 
tachment. 

President Polk notified Congress that Mexico had shed 
American blood on American soil, and Congress promptly 
declared that war existed by the act of Mexico. Provision 


THE SOUTHWEST AND THE NORTHWEST 


27 9 

was made for prosecuting the contest to a successful end. 
Because the North thought that the war was fought in the 
interest of slavery, it was very unpopular in that section. 
Almost two thirds of the volunteers came from south of 
Mason and Dixon’s line. 

Taylor Invades Mexico. — A Mexican force, greatly the 



superior in numbers, crossed the Rio Grande and attacked 
Taylor’s small army. The Mexicans fought courageously, 
but their lack of discipline and leadership caused their 
defeat. They fled across the Rio Grande. Taylor fol¬ 
lowed into Mexico. His movements at first were slow, 
because he had to wait for reenforcements. Then pushing 






28o HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


on into the interior of Mexico he captured the city of Monte¬ 
rey by assault. He was making further advance when 
General Winfield Scott, the commander-in-chief of the 
American army, ordered him to detach a large part of his 
command for an advance against the city of Mexico. 

Buena Vista. — President Santa Anna, who now com¬ 
manded the Mexicans, saw a chance to crush the remnant 
of Taylor’s army. Santa Anna had twenty thousand men; 
yet Taylor made ready to fight, although he had less 
than five thousand. The armies met in battle at Buena 
Vista, February 23, 1847, and the Americans put their 
enemies to flight. The splendid victory at Buena Vista, 
against such heavy odds, made Taylor the hero of America. 

Operations in New Mexico and California. — Meanwhile 
General Stephen W. Kearny had been ordered to occupy 
the northern provinces of Mexico. With a small force 
he left Fort Leavenworth, now in 
Kansas, and making a toilsome 
march of nine hundred miles over 
plains and mountains he captured 
Santa Fe, the capital of New Mexico, 
in the summer of 1846, and took 
possession of the province. Next he 
moved toward upper California. 
Before his long march was ended, 
however, the province had already fallen into American 
hands. For more than twenty years Americans in small 
numbers had been finding their way into California. John 
C. Fr&nont, who was on an exploring expedition in Cali¬ 
fornia when the war broke out, gathered around him these 
few Americans and defeated the Mexicans. The Americans 
declared California independent. San Francisco and other 
towns on the coast surrendered to the Pacific squadron of 
the American navy. 

Scott Captures the City of Mexico. — In the spring 
of 1847 the army of General Scott landed near Vera Cruz, 
tiie chief seaport of Mexico. The city, though strongly 



Fremont’? “ Bear Flag ” 








THE SOUTHWEST AND THE NORTHWEST 281 

fortified, was taken after a bombardment. From Vera 
Cruz Scott advanced upon the city of Mexico. The Mexi¬ 
can army under Santa Anna opposed the advance, but could 
not stop it. Sickness, brought on by the tropical climate 
and demands for garrison duty, however, caused Scott to 
halt his march for three months until reenforcements arrived. 
When the march was resumed it was marked by a succession 
of assaults upon Mexican fortifications. In every encounter 
the Americans were victorious, though the Mexicans made 
valiant resistance. Both armies lost heavily. On Sep¬ 
tember 14, 1847, Scott entered the city of Mexico with a 
greatly reduced force. The gallant commander and his 
equally gallant command had made a remarkable march. 

Treaty of Peace. — The fall of their capital brought the 
Mexicans to terms. A treaty of peace was signed in Mexico 
at Guadalupe Hidalgo, early in 1848. The western bound¬ 
ary of Texas was fixed at the Rio Grande, and New Mexico 
and upper California were ceded to the United States. In 
return the United States paid Mexico fifteen million dollars, 
and in addition agreed to pay claims against Mexico held 
by Americans to the amount of three and a half million 
dollars. 

The territory ceded embraced all the present states of 
California, Nevada, and Utah, most of Arizona, and portions 
of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming. The war itself 
cost about twenty-five thousand lives and sixty million 
dollars. 

The “Gadsden Purchase.” — Five years later (1853) 
the United States, through another treaty with Mexico, 
purchased a stretch of territory south of New Mexico and 
Arizona for ten million dollars. The territory was acquired 
in order to settle a dispute about the boundary line between 
the two countries and to secure a suitable route for a rail¬ 
road to the Pacific Ocean. It is known as the “Gadsden 
Purchase” because the treaty was made by James Gadsden, 
our minister to Mexico. 

The Wilmot Proviso. — As was to be expected, the ac- 


282 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

quisition of so large an area brought forward the slavery 
question, just as the purchase of Louisiana and the annex¬ 
ation of Texas had done. Even while the war was going on, 
but when it had become certain that territory would be 
acquired, David Wilmot of Pennsylvania introduced into 
Congress what is known as the Wilmot Proviso. Its purpose 
was to prohibit slavery in any territory that might be 
obtained from Mexico. 

Sectional Discord Increases. — The proviso failed to 
pass, but it inflamed the passions of North and South, 
The former enthusiastically favored it; the latter bitterly 
opposed it. Slavery did not exist in Mexican territory, 
and the Northern people were unwilling to carry it there. 
On the other hand, the Southern people contended that the 
new territory belonged to the states jointly, that it had been 
purchased by the blood and treasure of all sections, and that 
any citizen should be allowed to carry his property into it. 
The South made many threats of secession if the proviso 
should become a law. 


Topics and Questions 

1. Describe the life of the Pueblo Indians. Relate the early 
history of the Southwest. Tell of the Americans settling in Texas. 

2. Why did Texas revolt against Mexico? Explain the significance 
of the cry, “Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad!’' Give an 
account of the battle of San Jacinto. When and how did Texas become 
a republic? 

3. What is meant by the “Great American Desert”? What did 
our people think about the Oregon country? Tell the story of Fremont 
in the Rocky Mountain region and of Whitman in the Oregon country. 

4. State the main plank of the platform of the Democrats in the 
election of 1844 and explain how the plank caused the election of 
James K. Polk as President. How did Texas become one of the United 
States? What was the demand of the expansionists for Oregon? Dis¬ 
cuss the Oregon Compromise. 

5. Explain the origin of the Mexican War. Which section bore 
the brunt of the war in furnishing men? Give an account of General 
Taylor’s campaign; of General Kearny’s; of General Scott’s. Explain 
the terms of the treaty of peace with Mexico. What is the Gadsden 





aREAT-'£Ai,*T Lake 


il FRAN «M 


MONT 


mNTA FE: 


.A’S^VEGAS CANADIAN 


ilo^uangeles 


ANNEX 


SAN ANTO N10 


CHRI8TI 


matamoras 


Saltillo 


MONTEREY 


8CIENA VISTA 


MEXICO 


TROPIC OF CANCER 


VICTORIA • 


MAZATJ 


TAMPICO 


SAN LUIS POTOSI 


.^MEXICO, 


VERA CRU3 


MANZANILLO 


CERR< 


ACAPULCO 


con 


MAP SHOWING THE 

TERRITORY ACQUIRED 

FROM MEXICO 

AS THE RESULT OF 

THE MEXICAN WAR 




S ON TWCF3 , BOtICON 


Longitude West 


from Green*wicii 


















































s 


THE SOUTHWEST AND THE NORTHWEST 283 


Purchase? What is meant by the Wilmot Proviso? What effect did 
the Wilmot Proviso have upon the country? 

Project Exercises 

1. Point out on a map the scene of Fremont’s adventures and 
of Whitman's endeavors. 

2. Trace on a map the military operations of General Taylor; 
the march of General Kearny; the march of General Scott. 

3. Locate on a map the territory acquired by the United States as 
a result of the Mexican War; the territory acquired by the Gadsden 
Purchase. 

Important Dates: 

1845. Admission of Texas. 

1846. Beginning of Mexican War. 

1847. Capture of the City of Mexico. 

1848. Treaty of peace with Mexico. Cession of Mexican territory 

to the United States. 

1853. The Gadsden Purchase. 



Flag of Texas 




CHAPTER XXV 

THE UNITED STATES IN 1860 

Area and New States. — Sixty-one years had passed since 
Washington’s inauguration. The country’s advancement 
had been great in area, in population, and in material pros¬ 
perity. The United States proper embraced the same area 
that it does to-day, except a narrow strip on the southern 
borders of New Mexico and Arizona (the Gadsden Purchase). 



An Overland Train on its Way from Missouri to the Pacific Coast 


The number of states had increased to thirty. The states 
that had been admitted since the controversy that ended 
with the admission of Missouri were Arkansas (1836), 
Michigan (1837), Florida (1845), Texas (1845), Iowa (1846), 
Wisconsin (1848). The balance between the slaveholding 
states and the non-slaveholding states had been preserved, 
for Arkansas, Florida, and Texas allowed slavery, while 
Michigan, Iowa, and Wisconsin prohibited it. 

The first census (1790) had shown a population of only 
four million; the census of 1850 showed a population of 
twenty-three million. 

Gold in California. — The year previous (1849) had wit¬ 
nessed the most remarkable rush of emigrants westward 

28d 





THE UNITED STATES IN 1850 285 

that America has ever known. When upper California, or 
California as we know it, was given up by Mexico, It was 
regarded as a region of no great importance. Its white 
inhabitants were few, and Mexico had given them little 
attention except to extort taxes from them. But the prov¬ 
ince which was thought to be of little value soon proved to 
be a land of boundless promise. The lonely country was 
changed, as though in a night, into a populous, bustling 
commonwealth. The cause of this swift change was the 
finding of gold. 

Early in 1848, shining particles of the yellow metal were 
found on the land of John A. Sutter, near the present city 
of Sacramento. The discovery happened just nine days 
before the signing of the treaty with Mexico, and the trans¬ 
fer of California to the United States was made without 



Sacramento in 1848 


any knowledge of it. By the beginning of the year 1849 
the news had spread over the United States, and then began 
a rush to the gold fields. 1 

The Way to California in 1849. — The route by sea to 
California was around Cape Horn or by the Isthmus of 
Panama. Many eager gold seekers made their way, how¬ 
ever, across prairie and plain and over the Rocky Mountains. 

1 Before the acquisition of California the output of gold in the 
United States was small and was obtained from the mountainous 
regions of Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia. 



286 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


The journey across the continent presented hardships and 
dangers. Many a poor fellow died on the way. Tales 
of the sufferings of those who had gone ahead were borne 
back to the East, but they did not prevent other venture¬ 
some spirits from following. All through 
the spring and summer so many thousands 
went that they formed an almost unbroken 
train from the outskirts of Missouri to 
the foot of the Rocky Mountains. Every 
kind of vehicle — the “prairie schooner” 
(a long canvas-covered wagon drawn by 
six horses or oxen), the farm wagon, and 
even the push cart and wheelbarrow — 
was to be seen in the line. 

The “Forty-niners.” — By the end of 
December one hundred thousand people 
had reached the territory. On account of 
the year they are called the “forty-niners.” 
Sacramento, a settlement probably of not 
more than two hundred inhabitants in 
April, became a thriving city of nearly 
ten thousand by October. San Francisco, which had been a 
sleepy seaport of two thousand inhabitants, mostly Mexi¬ 
cans, had gained twenty thousand American inhabitants. 
In the mining camps, springing up so suddenly, a woman 
was a rare blessing, and a baby was a curiosity. 1 

A State Government for California Organized. — The 
“forty-niners” were mostly Americans, though every part 
of the world was represented. Many were outcasts and 
criminals. As there were no laws for the territory, a 
condition bordering on anarchy prevailed. Robberies, mur- 

1 “Tickets to a wedding sold readily at five dollars each. Miners 
separated from home would frequently travel miles to see a child, and 
would weep at the sound of its voice. A child born in the diggings 
received presents of gold dust that would have constituted a modest 
fortune in the states.” — Sparks’ Expansion of the American People , 
page 342. 




THE UNITED STATES IN 1850 


287 

ders, and lynchings were frequent. The better element, 
considering it imprudent to wait for Congress to provide a 
government for the wild country, adopted a constitution 
in November, 1849. The constitution prohibited slavery. 
Men who had sped across plain and mountain had not the 
time to carry slaves with them, even if they had wished to. 

Congress, however, had not, at the beginning of the year 
1850, recognized the constitution which the gold seekers in 
California had adopted; nor had it provided a government 
for New Mexico, the eastern half of the Mexican cession. 



View of San Francisco in 1847 
With American, ships in the harbor 


The Middle West. — The gold seekers in their haste to 
get to the Pacific coast left behind them a vast region, 
practically unoccupied, between the Mississippi Valley and 
the Rocky Mountains. Indeed, population was so sparse in 
that region that there were but five states west of the Mis¬ 
sissippi: Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Missouri, and Iowa. 
There were but two organized territories: Oregon (or¬ 
ganized 1848), comprising the present states of Oregon, 
Washington, and Idaho; and Minnesota (organized 1849), 
comprising the present state of Minnesota and a great part of 











288 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


the two Dakotas. The states of Kansas, Nebraska, North 
Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Washington, 
Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and Oklahoma 
had no places on the map. A large area lying between the 
Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains was still de¬ 
scribed in atlases as the great “American Desert.” 

“Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way.” — 
Though population had not reached out into the extreme 
West, except on the Pacific coast, yet it had made a steady 
westward movement. West of the Alleghanies there were 



Note the ferry-boat propelled by poles, the stern-wheeled steamboat, and the wagons 


three times as many people as were in the whole United 
States in 1790. Of the five most populous states two were 
west of those mountains. 1 

The old pioneers of the Middle West, many of whom were 
yet living, could see the great reward for their labor and 
hardships. The bridle path had been widened into the 
turnpike and the pack horse had been succeeded by the 
stagecoach. The bateau, the raft, and the flat-bottomed 
barge had given way to the quick-moving steamer. The 
comforts of life were brought to the very door of the middle 
western man. 

1 The five most populous states were, in their order, New York* 
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, and Tennessee. 



THE UNITED STATES IN 1850 289 

The Cities. — The cities showed remarkable growth. 
Most of the large ones were on the Atlantic slope. New 
York had grown from thirty-three thousand in Washington’s 
time to five hundred thousand; Philadelphia, from thirty 
thousand to four hundred thousand; Baltimore, from thir¬ 
teen thousand to one hundred and seventy thousand; 
Boston, from eighteen thousand to one hundred and thirty- 
five thousand. Beyond the mountains, Cincinnati, a hamlet 
in Washington’s time, had grown to be a city of more than 
one hundred thousand. On the Mississippi, New Orleans 
had a population of about a hundred and fifteen thousand, 
and St. Louis seventy-five thousand. All these cities be¬ 
longed, however, to the well-settled portions of America. 

Towns in the “Far West.” — Many of the cities farther 
west or northwest, whose names are to-day familiar to every 
household, were then only villages; the sites of others were 
but forest or prairie. In 1850 Chicago was twenty years 
old and contained only thirty thousand persons. Mil¬ 
waukee was still younger, and its population did not exceed 
twenty thousand. St. Paul was a pleasant little village, with 
but eleven hundred citizens; while Minneapolis was too 
small to appear in the census of 1850. A few huts on the 
banks of the Missouri marked the present Kansas City. 
Omaha, Topeka, Denver, and Seattle are among the well- 
known cities of to-day which did not then exist. 

Increase in Manufactures. — Manufacturing, which be¬ 
gan to become important only after the close of the War 
of 1812, had increased to such an extent that by 1850 there 
were more persons dependent upon the factory system for 
support than there had been inhabitants in all the United 
States when Washington was President. New England 
manufactured cotton and woolen goods, while the Middle 
States and Ohio made iron wares. Almost every kind of 
manufactured article was now made in America. Mills 
and workshops abounded in the North, and thriving factory 
towns dotted that section. In the South, where agriculture 
was still the main industry, there were very few factories. 


290 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Increase in Commerce. — It had become common for 
steamers to cross the Atlantic. Regular voyages, requiring 
about twelve days, were made for carrying passengers and 
the mails. Commerce had kept pace with the general 
growth of the country. The American flag could be seen 
in the ports of every part of the world. “The navigation 
and commerce of the United States,” wrote Webster in 
1850, “are hardly exceeded by the oldest and most 
commercial nations.” To encourage shipping, Congress had 
already begun granting large bounties 1 2 * to steamships for 
the carrying of oceanic mails. This gave additional ground 
for complaint on the part of those who believed in the 
doctrine of states’ rights. 

Railroads. — Railroads, employing horse power or sails, 
had for many years been used both in Europe and America . 

The first railroad in 
America was built in 
1809, and extended 
only a short distance 
from a quarry to the 
Delaware River. 4 
The cars were drawn 
by horses. This 
road was followed by 
a few others that 
used horse power or 
sails. 

In 1825 the first locomotive to be used to advantage 
was employed on a short railroad in England. In 1829 
a locomotive was first used in America. It was employed 
on a short line at Honesdale, Pennsylvania. This locomo¬ 
tive, however, had been built in England. 

The first American-built locomotive, the “Tom Thumb,” 

1 A premium in money offered to encourage any branch of industry, 
as manufactures or commerce. 

2 McMaster’s History of the People of the United States, vol. v, 

page 143, 











THE UNITED STATES IN 1850 


291 


was run in 1830 on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, but 
it was soon abandoned, as it was too small for service. The 
first American-built locomotive to be used with practical 
results was “The Best 
Friend,” which was em¬ 
ployed the same year on 
the South Carolina Rail¬ 
road. This road, when 
tompleted in 1833 from 
Charleston to Hamburg, 

South Carolina, a distance 
of 136 miles, was the 
longest in the world. 

The early railroads were 
built mainly as feeders for 
water traffic, and, there¬ 
fore, usually ran east and 
west to connect a seaport 
and a navigable stream in the interior. For some time 
the canal was thought to furnish a better method of transpor¬ 
tation than the railroad, and consequently so little progress 
had been made in railroad building that in 1850 there were 
less than six thousand miles of track in the whole country. 

The Telegraph. — Only six years before (1844) S. F. B. 
Morse, an American inventor, had completed between 
Baltimore and Washington the first successful telegraph line 
in the world. Mexican war news was slow in coming be¬ 
cause there were so few telegraph lines, and the people 
were kept in anxious suspense about the fate of the army. 
Battles were fought and won, even on the Texas frontier, 
months before the news was known throughout the United 
States. i 

Immigration Increases. — Immigration, which had again 
set in after the close of the War of 1812, had continued with¬ 
out interruption, though it had rarely exceeded one hundred 
thousand persons a year. Now, however, immigration 
was swelling to great proportions. In 1846-1847 the failure 



. -r * 

A Railroad Train in 1831 









292 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

of the potato crop caused a terrible famine in Ireland in 
which many of the inhabitants starved to death. Thousands 
upon thousands of Irishmen were driven to seek relief in 
America. In 1848 an uprising against despotic government 
occurred in Germany. The revolution was unsuccessful, 
and many of the revolutionists fled to America where they 
could live under a free government. In 1847 nearly two 
hundred and fifty thousand immigrants came to America, 
and in 1849 three hundred thousand came. While most of 
those who were now seeking our shores were Irishmen and 
Germans, there were also many Englishmen and Welshmen. 



The Earlier Foreign Immigrants 

IRISH SWEDE GERMAN ITALIAN RUSSIAN CHINAMAN 


Immigration Benefits Mainly the North. — Immigra¬ 
tion, which continued to draw mainly from northern 
Europe, increased with every year until interrupted by the 
War of Secession. Since the immigrants were mostly 
laborers, they did not care to live in the South, where they 
could not hope to acquire large plantations, and where they 
would have to compete with slave labor. The English, 
the Irish, and the Welsh stopped in the North and East, 
where they found employment in the manufacturing indus¬ 
tries; the Germans moved on into the Northwest, where, 
side by side with native Americans, they converted cheap 
but fertile lands into prosperous farms. 




'THE UNITED STATES IN 1850 


293 


Topics and Questions 

1. State the boundaries of the United States in 1850. Mention the 
states that had been admitted into the Union since the controversy in 
1820 over the admission of Missouri. Which allowed slavery and which 
prohibited it? How had population grown since Washington’s time? 

2. In what way was gold discovered in California? Describe the 
life, journeys, troubles, gains and losses of the “Forty-niners.” Did 
the Californians have slavery? 

3. Mention ten states of the Middle West of the present day that 
were unorganized and unnamed in 1850. Which states ranked at that 
time highest in population? Which cities? Describe the “infant 
cities” of 1850. 

4. What were the chief manufactures and the centers of manu¬ 
facture in the United States in 1850? What may be said of America’s 
commerce in 1850? 

5. Tell the story of early railroad building in the United States; 
of the invention of the telegraph. 

6. Tell of the conditions in Europe that caused immigration to 
America to increase. Show how immigration benefited the North 
more than the South. 


Project Exercises 

1. Do you think that the fact that the early railroads ran east and 
west had anything to do with increasing the division between the 
North and South? Give your reasons. 

2. Contrast the progress made in modes of travel between 1790 and 
1850, and between 1850 and the present time. 

Important Dates: 

1829. First locomotive used on a railroad in America. 

1844. Invention of the telegraph. 

1848. Discovery of gold in California. 


CHAPTER XXVI 

LIFE IN 1850 

Progress Shown in the Cities. — The condition of the 
cities had improved in almost every respect. Men were 
amassing large fortunes. Houses were handsome and were 
fitted up with many conveniences. Gas was used for illu 
minating purposes and coal for fuel. The plumber was kept 
busy, for waterworks had supplanted the pump and well 
Police service had taken the place of the night watchman 
Yet there was not a street car, a steam fire-engine, a tele¬ 
phone, nor an electric light. 

Dress. — Society, in the narrow sense in which the word 
is frequently used, laid great stress upon wealth. In dress 
display was the aim, rather than simplicity. The man wore 
a tall stiff hat; a very large coat, cut low in front, with long 
skirts and big buttons; a waistcoat cut low to match the 
coat; a soft rolled collar, around which a huge bow was 
fastened. The woman wore a Quaker-shaped bonnet 
gaudily decorated, and tied under the chin; a long-waisted 
tight-fitting basque; a very full skirt trimmed with flounces 
Around the shoulders she wore a mantalet, a kind of shawl 
trimmed with lace or fringe. She brushed her hair smooth 
and close to the forehead and arranged it on the sides in 
such a way as to cover the ears completely. At the back of 
the head it was gathered into a knot from which hung curls, 

Amusements. — The theater was very popular. Society 
had adopted round dancing — the waltz and the german 
Little attention was given to athletics, even in the colleges 
Town ball, the forerunner of baseball, was a favorite outdooi 
game. 

Rural Life. — In 1831 Cyrus H. McCormick, a Virginia 
planter, invented the reaping machine to take the place of 

294 


LIFE IN 1850 


29S 


the ancient scythe. By 1850 other machines for working 
grain and grass crops had come into use. These inventions 
mainly benefited the North and Northwest, where the 
crops were wheat, barley, oats, com, and hay. Develop¬ 



ment of the farms of the Northwest was also greatly aided 
by the Cumberland Road, the Erie Canal, and the steam¬ 
boats constantly plying on the Great Lakes, for through 
these means marketing was made easier. Life on the farm 
in the North 
and the North¬ 
west was rapidly 
changing. Work 
was becoming 
less of dmdgery 
and the crops 
were becoming 
more valuable. 

In the South 

rural life had not The First Type of McCormick Reaper 
changed. There 

the planter still lived in his spacious home surrounded by 
his fields of cotton or tobacco cultivated by slave labor. 

Discomforts of Travel. — With railroads so few, there 
were, of course, no great through systems. The traveler 
tvas fortunate if, after riding the short length of one road, he 
reached a town where another road would carry him farther 






296 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

on his journey. In journeying great distances he made many 
changes from car to steamboat, canal boat, and stagecoach. 
Schedule time was seldom kept, and connections were bade 
Not many railroads sent out trains on Sunday; to do so 
aroused much opposition. Few people believed that a 
locomotive would ever be able to cross a mountain. Many 
a large river was yet unbridged, and a passenger had to leave 
his car, cross the river by ferry, and board another train on 
the other side. 

There was no direct line of railroad between Boston and 
New York. Trains connected New York with Philadelphia, 
Baltimore, and Washington, but it was impossible to reach 



A Canal Passenger Packet 


the capital city from the South or West entirely by rail 
It was better to go from Charleston or Savannah to Washing¬ 
ton by steamer, via Norfolk, than to go overland partly 
by rail and partly by stagecoach. A resident of New 
Orleans or the Southwest, wishing to visit the capital, would 
go in a steamboat up the Mississippi and Ohio until Wheel¬ 
ing was reached; thence he would cross the mountains in 
a stagecoach along the Cumberland Road to Cumberland, 
Maryland, where he would find cars for Baltimore. At 
Baltimore he would change again for Washington. It 
Was even more difficult to go from Chicago to Washington; 
the flourishing Western town had only one short railroad 
and was at a great distance from the steamboats of th« 






LIFE IN 1850 


297 


Mississippi and Ohio rivers. The discomforts of traveling 
would appall a man of to-day, and expenses were double 
what they are now. Those were still the times of state bank 
money. A traveler 
did well to carry 
plenty of coin with 
him, for the farther 
he went from his home 
bank, unless it were a 
bank of one of the 
chief cities of trade, 
the less were his bank¬ 
notes worth. 

Hasty Building of 
Railroads and Steam¬ 
boats. — Energy already characterized the American people. 
They wanted to move fast. More railroads must be built* 
and built rapidly, and with this year, 1850, railroad building 
may be said to have begun in earnest. The demand for 




Locomotive of 1850-1860 

Note the small size of this type of engine as 
compared with the modern locomotive 


quicker transportation could be met only by the hasty con¬ 
struction of roadbeds and of railroad and steamboat engines; 
and the haste led to many fearful accidents. 

The loss of life in proportion to the amount of travel was 
much greater than at present. Accidents on land and water 
were so frequent that a great outcry was raised against such 
murderous modes of travel. A Senator remarked in the 










298 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

course of a speech in the Senate, that he would rather go 
into an Indian battle than go in a steamboat to his distant 
home to see his wife and children. Finally Federal and 
state governments took the matter in hand. Congress passed 
a law requiring the inspection by Federal officials of every 
steamboat boiler, and states enacted statutes making the 
railroad companies liable for the death of passengers, or 
injury to them, when due to the negligence of the company. 
These laws are in force at the present time. 1 

The Post Office. — Postage was still charged according 
to distance. A letter was carried three thousand miles 
at the rate of three cents for every half-ounce or fraction 
thereof, if prepaid, and for five cents if not prepaid. For 
distances greater than three thousand miles the rate was six 
cents if prepaid and ten cents if not prepaid. 

Envelopes and postage stamps had come into use. The 
introduction of stamps came about in this way: before the 
letter-carrier system was established in the cities, private 
companies delivered letters, using stamps to show that the 
fee had been paid. Postmasters, seeing how well the stamps 
worked, adopted the plan. It was so much easier for post¬ 
masters to use a stamp than to write “prepaid” on the 
envelope before sending it on, that they had stamps printed 
on their own responsibility. In order to pay the cost of 
printing, they sold them at a price slightly in advance of 
their face value. People willingly paid the additional 
expense of postage; it was a convenience to buy a number 
of stamps at one time, and avoid the necessity for going to 
the post office and paying cash for each letter. The de¬ 
mand that the government make the stamps and sell them 
at face value became so general that in 1847 the government 
adopted the postage stamp system. 

The Express Business. — In 1839 W. E. Harnden, an 
enterprising young man, started the express business. He 

1 In three years (1853) railroad mileage had increased threefold 
(15,000 miles), and in ten years (i860) had doubled itself again (30,000 
miles). The present mileage is, in round numbers, 250,000. 


LIFE IN 1850 


299 


advertised that he would carry money and small parcels 
between the cities of New York and Boston. His route 
between these cities was partly by water and partly by land. 
At first his business was so small that he could carry all the 
packages intrusted to him in a single carpet bag or valise; 
yet it grew so fast that in the next year a company was 
organized to compete with Harnden for the express business 
between New York and Boston. The express service was 
soon extended to all the large cities. 

Discoveries and Inventions. — In 1842 Dr. Crawford 
W. Long of Georgia discovered that by the use of ether he 
could make a patient insen¬ 
sible to the pains of a surgical 
operation. 1 The discovery 
that chloroform could be put 
to the same use was not 
made until later (1847), an d 
then by an English physician. 

In 1843 Charles Good¬ 
year, a native of Connecticut, 
discovered that a mixture 
of India rubber and sulphur 
forms a highly useful compo¬ 
sition. The process is known 
as vulcanizing. Pure rubber 
melts in hot weather, and 
until Goodyear’s discovery it was of little value for manufac¬ 
turing purposes. 

In 1846 Elias Howe, a poor mechanic of Massachusetts, 
patented the sewing machine. In the same year Richard 
M. Hoe of New York invented the revolving printing press, 

1 Dr. Long communicated his valuable discovery to medical men of 
his acquaintance, but before it became generally known, three other 
men, unaware of Dr. Long’s success, experimented on the same line, 
and each claimed the credit for the discovery. These men were Doctors 
Wells of Hartford, and Morton and Jackson of Boston. To Dr. Long, 
however, undoubtedly belongs the prior claim. 



Howe’s Sewing Machine 



300 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

which enables copies of a newspaper to be printed at a most 
rapid rate. 

Newspapers; Schools. — By 1850 periodicals and news¬ 
papers numbered two thousand; more than three hundred 
of the newspapers were dailies. In many of the states the 
public school system was by this time very generally estab¬ 
lished. 

Woman’s Rights. —This period also saw two movements 
for reform take definite shape. Because her sphere of work 
was thought to be the home, and because, on account of her 
sex, she was thought to need protection, woman had never 
been given by law the same freedom as man. Nowhere did 
she have an equal right to hold property, to gain an edu¬ 
cation, or to work for a livelihood; nor could she vote or 
hold office. In colonial times there had been some agitation 
among women for equal rights. After the Revolutionary 
War the movement grew steadily, though very slowly; 
yet it had gained sufficient strength by 1848 for a woman’s 
rights’ convention — the first of its kind — to be held in 
that year at Seneca Falls, New York. The convention de¬ 
manded for women equal rights in every respect with men. 
Though the movement long met with ridicule, its earnest 
advocates so persevered that they steadily won converts, 
men and women. Within the next fifty years women 
secured, in nearly every state, equal rights with men in 
matters of property, education, and employment, and in 
many states the right to vote and hold office. 

Prohibition. — For years much attention had been given 
to the evils resulting from the excessive use of intoxicating 
liquors. Societies had been formed to promote, by volun¬ 
tary methods, habits of temperance. Then came the demand 
to enforce temperance by the passage of laws forbidding the 
manufacture or sale of intoxicants for beverage purposes 
— a movement commonly known as prohibition. In 1851 
Maine passed the first state prohibition law. In the 
course of time many other states followed the example of 
Maine. 


LIFE IN 1850 


301 



Edgar Allan Poh 


American Literature. — The period produced many 
eminent men of letters. The pioneers of American literature 
— Irving, Bryant, and Cooper — were living. Irving had 
turned to history and biography. The Conquest of Granada . 
The Alhambra , and the biographies of 
Christopher Columbus and Oliver Gold¬ 
smith had already appeared. He was yet 
to write his life of Washington. Bryant, 
as editor of a newspaper in New York, had 
great influence in public affairs, yet he 
found time to contribute many poems to 
our growing literature. Cooper’s work was 
done; death soon claimed him. Cooper 
wrote in all thirty-two novels. The most 
popular are five stories of Indian adventure, 
which, grouped together, are known as The Leather stocking 
T ales. 

Edgar Allan Poe, a Southerner, and perhaps the most 
brilliant of American writers, had come and gone like the 
flash of a meteor. His brief life showed his genius to be 
most artistic, both in poetry and the short story. Among 
his poems may be mentioned The Raven 
and The Bells , and among his short 
stories, The Fall of the House of Usher 
and The Murders in the Rue Morgue. 

William Gilmore Simms, of South 
Carolina, wrote interesting colonial, 
Revolutionary and border romances, 
which portrayed early life in the South 
as Cooper’s novels portrayed early life in 
the North. Like Cooper, Simms was a 
prolific writer. Among his best romances 
are The Yemassee, The Scout , and The 
Partisan. 

In New England lived a remarkable group of poets, novel¬ 
ists, and essayists. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the most 
popular of American poets, had already written Evangeline 



William Gilmore 
Simms 



302 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


and was soon to give to the world Hiawatha and The Courts 
ship of Miles Standish. Nathaniel Hawthorne, the greatest 
of American novelists, had just 
published The Scarlet Letter , which 
in a short time was to be followed 
by The House of Seven Gables . 
His other great novel, The Marble 
Faun, was not published until 
some years later. John Greenleaf 
Longfellow’s House Whittier, the Quaker poet, was 
composing stirring verses against 
slavery. James Russell Lowell, poet and essayist, had 
written The Vision of Sir Launfal and the first series 
of the Biglow Papers . The writings 
of Oliver Wendell Holmes, the hu¬ 
morist, were charming every one, 
but that most delightful work, The 
Autocrat of the Breakfast Table , had 
yet to come from his pen. Ralph 
Waldo Emerson, essayist and poet, 
had begun a lecturing career that ex¬ 
tended over a period of nearly forty 
years. Henry David Thoreau was 
writing of nature and the simple life. 

Another group of New Englanders Nathaniel Hawthornb 
were historians. William Hiclding Prescott wrote mainly 
of the Spaniards in America. Among his works are The 
Conquest of Mexico and The Conquest of Peru. George 
Bancroft had completed the first three volumes of his 
History of the United States. Francis Parkman had just 
attracted attention by The Oregon Trail , a description of 
his experiences in the extreme Northwest, but greater fame 
came with his histories of the French in North America, 
the first number of which, The Conspiracy of Pontiac , 
soon followed. John Lothrop Motley, who devoted his 
studies to the history of the Dutch, completed his first 
work, The Rise of the Dutch Republic , a few years later. 






LIFE IN 1850 


303 


Topics and Questions 

1. What conveniences had come into use in the cities by 1850? 
Mention some of the conveniences found in a city of to-day that you 
would not have found in a city of 1850. What do pictures in books of 
1850 reveal regarding the dress of men and women? What were the 
amusements of the times? 

2. Mention some of the things that made rural life easier in the 
North and West. Explain why rural life in the 
South had not changed. Describe the discom¬ 
forts of travel, and explain why travelers so 
often met with accidents. 

3. Tell how postage stamps came into use. 

Give the story of the origin of the express busi¬ 
ness. What discoveries and inventions of great 
importance were slowly making their way in 1850? 

In how many daily newspapers might news of the 
“Forty-niners” be found in 1850? What of the 
public school? 

4. Trace the origin and progress of the 
woman’s rights movement and of the prohibition George Bancroft 
movement. 

5. Mention some of the foremost writers of the time and name the 
titles of some of their works. Which of the works have you read? 



Project Exercise 

Tell what you can of the status of the woman’s rights movement at 
the present time; of the prohibition movement. 

Important Dates: 

1831. Invention of the reaper. 

1839. Beginning of the express business. 

1842. Discovery that ether could be used as an anaesthetic. 

1846. Invention of the sewing machine. 


CHAPTER XXVII 

THE WEST AND SLAVERY 

Taylor Elected President. — In the election of 184S 
General Zachary Taylor, the “hero of Buena Vista” and 
the nominee of the Whig party, was elected President 
Neither the Democrats nor the Whigs took a decided stand 

on slavery. Abolitionists 
and antislavery Democrats 
and Whigs had organized the 
Free Soil party, and while 
the new party did not poll 
many votes, it drew from 
the Democrats a number 
sufficient to give the election 
to the Whigs. 

The Quarrel over Cali¬ 
fornia.— The two great 
parties could not, by avoid¬ 
ing the slavery issue, set it 
at rest, for in providing a 
government for the immense 
Mexican cession, the question whether slavery should be 
allowed or prohibited in the new territory was bound to 
come to the front again. When the first Congress of 
Taylor’s administration met in December, 1849, it was well 
understood that California would adopt an antislavery con¬ 
stitution, though news that this step had already been taken 
had not reached the East. At once the admission of Cali¬ 
fornia became the leading topic of discussion, and the slavery 
controversy, with all its heat and bitterness, again threw the 
country into turmoil. 

The North insisted not only that California should be 
immediately admitted, but also that slavery should be ex* 

zos 



Zachary Taylor 


THE WEST AND SLAVERY 305 

eluded from all territories, and abolished in the District 
of Columbia. The South was united in opposition to all 
these demands. It asserted that California was not ready 
for statehood, and argued that the legal course would be 
to place it first under territorial government, and leave 
the question of slavery to be decided by the inhabitants 
when the territory was ready for admission as a state. 
Though the South held that it was unconstitutional for 
Congress to exclude slavery from the public domain, it 
was willing for the Missouri Compromise line to be ex¬ 
tended to the Pacific Ocean. Thus the Mexican cession 
would be divided between the North and the South, and 
California would be cut into two states. 

Secession Feeling in the South. — Each side charged the 
other with encroaching upon its rights, and the Union was 
nearer to breaking up than it had been even in the struggle 
over Missouri thirty years before. Many Southerners be¬ 
lieved that the time had come for their states to sefcede; 
for, they said, the North was already controlling the gov¬ 
ernment and making laws in the interest of the North 
and to the injury of the South. Hardly a man in the South 
doubted the right of a state to secede. The majority 
preferred to remain in the Union if their interests could be 
secured; but they saw that the admission of California 
would put an end to the balance between the sections, since 
the South had no new state to propose as an offset. 

The “Compromise of 1850.” — Henry Clay, the “Great 
Pacificator,” came to the aid of the Union when its life 
seemed hanging by a thread. In January, 1850, he pro¬ 
posed a compromise, the principal features of which were: 
California to be admitted without slavery; the remainder 
of the Mexican cession to be organized into territories in 
which the matter of slavery should be left to the inhabitants; 
a more stringent fugitive slave law to be enacted. The 
admission of California without slavery was intended to 
appease the North, and the two other provisions were in¬ 
tended to appease the South. There were some members 


306 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

of Congress from each section who opposed the Compromise 
on the ground that it yielded too much to the other section. 1 

The debate on the Compro¬ 
mise grew more and more 
heated and continued for seven 
months. The result was still 
in suspense, when President 
Taylor died in July, 1850, after 
a brief illness. Millard Fillmore 
of New York, the Vice Presi¬ 
dent, took the oath as President 
on the day following Taylor’s 
death. 

Finally, in 1850, the Compro¬ 
mise was adopted. California 
was immediately admitted, and 
the remainder of the Mexican 
cession was organized into the territories of New Mexico 
and Utah. 

The Fugitive Slave Law. — A more stringent fugitive 
slave law had been made a part of the Compromise of 1850, 
because the old law had not been enforced. The Consti¬ 
tution provided that a slave escaping into another state 
must be given back to his owner. 2 Congress, to carry 
this provision into effect, had passed a law in Washing¬ 
ton’s administration making it the duty of state officials 
to return the fugitive slave. Some of the Northern states 
had passed “personal liberty laws” which prevented the 
surrender of the runaway, thus nullifying not only a law 
of Congress, but even a mandate of the Constitution. The 

1 Discussion of the Compromise furnished the last occasion on which 
the immortal trio, Webster, Clay, and Calhoun, met together in debate. 
Webster joined Clay in support of the Compromise; Calhoun opposed 
it. The hand of death was already upon Calhoun. He was too feebie 
to deliver his speech, but sat in his seat in the Senate while a fellow- 
senator read it. He died only a few weeks later. Clay and Webster 
survived him two years. 

2 See Constitution, Art. iv, Sec. 2. 



Millard Fillmore 


THE WEST AND SLAVERY 


307 

law of 1850, besides being much more stringent, placed 
upon the federal officials in each state the duty of returning 
slaves to their owners. 

Franklin Pierce Elected President. — In the election of 
1852 both the Democratic and the Whig parties endorsed 
the Compromise of 1850. The 
Democrats had been more 
nearly unanimous in their sup¬ 
port of the Compromise, and 
their candidate, Franklin Pierce 
of New Hampshire, was elected 
President by an overwhelming 
majority. The result of the 
election was taken to mean that 
the Compromise of 1850 was so 
satisfactory to the country at 
large that it had settled the 
slavery question for many years 
to come. But from this dream 
of peace there was soon a rude 
awakening. 

The Kansas-Nebraska Act. — The rapid growth of the 
North which had set in about 1850 with the inrush of immi¬ 
grants, the activity in railroad building, and the invention 
of machinery for farming had hastened the development of 
the Northwest. Settlers pushing westward had made it 
necessary to give a territorial government to the region now 
comprising the states of Kansas and Nebraska. 

In 1854 Congress passed a law organizing the territories 
of Kansas and Nebraska and allowing the people of these 
territories to decide whether they would admit slavery. 
The area included in the new territories was a portion of the 
Louisiana Purchase lying north of the Missouri Compromise 
line, and therefore a part of the public domain in which 
Congress had prohibited slavery. However, the supporters 
of the Kansas-Nebraska bill claimed that the Compromise 
of 1850, in allowing territories in the Mexican cession north 



Franklin Pierce 



308 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

of the Missouri Compromise line to decide for themselves 
the question of slavery, had set aside the Missouri Com¬ 
promise. 

The Kansas-Nebraska bill came as a surprise to the entire 
country, for the South, the section which would be bene¬ 
fited by it, had 
not aske$ for it. 
The bill was 
introduced b y 
Senator Stephen 
A. Douglas of 
Illinois, a Demo¬ 
crat, and was 
supported by 
many northern 
Democrats in 
Congress. The 
Southern mem¬ 
bers also natu¬ 
rally voted for it. 

Territories from which Kansas and In passing the 
Nebraska were Erected bill Congress 

took the position 

always held by states’ rights men, who denied the right of 
Congress to legislate upon slavery in the territories, and 
who, consequently, denied that the Missouri Compromise 
was constitutional. 

“Squatter Sovereignty.” — The Kansas-Nebraska Act 
aroused much bitterness in the North, where it was be¬ 
lieved that the Act violated a sacred compact forbid¬ 
ding slavery in the Northern portion of the Louisiana 
Purchase. Fear that the result of the Act would be to con¬ 
vert the greater part of the West into slaveholding states 
spurred the antislavery people to fight slavery more de¬ 
terminedly than ever; and it caused many, who had not 
already done so, to leave the Democratic party. The 
Kansas-Nebraska Act even divided those who remained in 









THE WEST AND SLAVERY 


309 


the Democratic party into two factions, differing as to the 
time when the people of a territory should decide the slavery 
question. The Northern wing, led by Douglas, asserted 
that the Act gave the people power to decide while still in 
their territorial condition. This power was known as 
‘‘popular sovereignty,” or more generally as “squatter 
Sovereignty.” 1 The Southern wing contended that the 
decision could be made only when a territory had framed 
a state constitution, and that in the meantime slaves might 
be owned in the territory. 

North and South Strive to Gain Kansas. — “Popular” 
or “squatter” sovereignty was soon given a test. The 
section that gained control of the new territories would gain 
a controlling influence in the national government. When 
Kansas was opened for settlement, many slave owners moved 
into the territory from the adjoining state of Missouri, and 
it seemed as if Kansas would become a slaveholding state. 
To prevent such a result emigrant aid'societies in the North 
sent great numbers of people to Kansas. Then there began 
in earnest a struggle between Northern and Southern fac¬ 
tions for the control of the proposed state. The men who 
went to Kansas, whether for or against slavery, carried their 
weapons. 

“Bleeding Kansas.” — The factions settled in opposite 
parts of the territory. Each had its legislature, and neither 
recognized the laws of the other. In 1856 a newspaper 
office and a hotel at Lawrence, a town of the antislavery 
faction, were destroyed by a sheriff’s posse. The sheriff 
was an officer of the proslavery faction. In revenge a man 
named John Brown, assisted by his sons and a few anti¬ 
slavery neighbors, killed five proslavery men living near 
Pottawatomie Creek. Brown excused the deed with the 
assertion, “I have no choice. It has been decreed by the 
Almighty God.” Guerrilla warfare broke out, hostile bands 

1 The name “squatter sovereignty” was given the doctrine by its 
opponents because, they claimed, it left the decision to the first settlers, 
Who were known as “squatters.” 


310 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

met, and death was the result. John Brown’s name be¬ 
came notorious for bloody work. The taking of life became 
so common that men who really desired to become settlers 
were compelled to have weapons at hand while they tilled 
their fields. Towns were plundered and burned, and every 
form of lawlessness went unchecked in the territory. It 
cannot be said “which faction surpassed the other in mis¬ 
deeds.” 1 The new territory became known everywhere 
as “Bleeding Kansas.” 

In 1857 a state constitution permitting slavery was 
adopted in Kansas. The antislavery inhabitants of the 
territory declared that the election was fraudulent. An 
attempt to have Congress admit Kansas as a state under 
this constitution, though it failed, provoked further angry 
discussion of the slavery question. For months Congress 
wrangled over Kansas, and the agitation spread to the 
remotest points of the land. North and South were drift¬ 
ing wider and wider apart. The fraternal feeling, for which 
the founders of the government had planned, was losing 
itself in sectional controversy. 2 

Personal Liberty Laws. — The indignation of the North 
because of the Kansas-Nebraska Act was shown in renewed 
opposition to the fugitive slave law. * Personal liberty laws, 
more sweeping in their effect were passed. In every North¬ 
ern state except two 3 the Federal law was nullified either 
by state laws or by the interference of state officials. 

Riots occurred in Northern cities when attempts were 
made to return slaves to their owners. Abolitionists and 
antislavery people in general united in helping the fugi¬ 
tives to Canada. They made use of a system known as 
the “underground railroad,” by which the slave was assisted 
from place to place until he reached the boundary. The 
number of slaves who ran away from bondage was small, 

1 Spring’s Kansas , page 176. 

2 Kansas was finally admitted without slavery in 1861, after the 
Southern states had seceded. 

3 New Jersey and California. 


THE WEST AND SLAVERY 


311 

and the number of attempts to recover them was even 
smaller; but resistance to the law in the North served to 
deepen the antagonism between the sections. 

Rise of the Republican Party. — The Whig party did not 
long survive its overwhelming defeat in 1852. The pro¬ 
slavery wing of the Whigs 
joined the Democratic party. 

Antislavery Whigs, Free 
Soilers, and many of those 
who had been driven from 
the Democratic party by the 
Kansas - Nebraska Act 
united to form a new party, 
the Republican party of the 
present time. In the elec¬ 
tion of 1856 the candidate of 
the Republicans for Presi¬ 
dent was John C. Fremont, 
the “Pathfinder.” The 
nominee of the Democrats 
was James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. The main plank 
of the Republican platform was that Congress had 
the right, and it was its duty, to prohibit slavery in the 
territories. The Democrats advocated allowing the terri¬ 
tories to decide the slavery question for themselves — 
the principle embodied in the Kansas-Nebraska Act. 
Buchanan was elected. The Republicans, though it was 
their first appearance in a presidential election, carried 
eleven of the sixteen states in the North and polled an 
immense popular vote in that section. Such evidence 
of the rapid growth of the antislavery feeling in the 
North following the Kansas-Nebraska Act caused alarm in 
the South. From this time on the lines were sharply 
drawn between Democrat and Republican. 

The Dred Scott Decision. — Dred Scott was a Missouri 
slave whose owner had taken him to what is now Minne¬ 
sota before the Missouri Compromise was repealed. Scott 



James Buchanan 



312 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

brought suit, claiming that he was freed by reason of his 
residence in territory in which Congress had forbidden 
slavery. In 1857 the United States Supreme Court denied 
his claim and in its decision announced that a slave was 
property which the owner could carry into a territory just 
as any other property, and that therefore any law of 
Congress forbidding slavery in the territories, such as the 
Missouri Compromise, was unconstitutional and void. 

The decision was in accord with the Kansas-Nebraska 
Act. It sustained the position taken by the South and thus 
condemned the main plank in the Republican platform. 
But instead of allaying, it increased partisan strife. The 
Republicans denounced the decision as a political act of a 
Democratic Supreme Court, and declared they would not 
abide by it. 

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates. — In 1858 Stephen A. 
Douglas was a candidate to succeed himself as United 
States Senator from Illinois. Abraham Lincoln, a Repub¬ 
lican, opposed him. The candidates canvassed the state 
in a series of joint debates, with slavery the sole issue. 
Douglas favored allowing a territory to decide for itself, 
before becoming a state, the question of slavery (“ squatter 
sovereignty”); Lincoln advocated that Congress should 
forbid slavery in all territories. The campaign, the most 
famous one for United States Senator, was watched with 
keen interest by all the country. Douglas was elected 
by a small majority; yet the able speeches of Abraham 
Lincoln, hitherto a comparatively unknown man, made 
him immediately a prominent figure in national politics. 

John Brown and his Raid. — One night in October, 1859, 
John Brown, already notorious for deeds of blood in Kansas, 
seized the arsenal belonging to the United States at Harper's 
Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia). He had with him 
eighteen men. His purpose was to free the slaves, and not 
doubting that they would flock to him, he brought arms for 
a thousand men. Residents of the town and neighborhood 
were forcibly taken and held as hostages. News of the 


THE WEST AND SLAVERY 


313 


event spread rapidly and militia and armed citizens hurried 
to the scene. During the whole of the following day, 
fighting went on between 
Brown’s men and the 
Virginians. Men on 
both sides were killed. 

Two days later 
Lieutenant Colonel 
Robert E. Lee, after¬ 
ward so greatly distin¬ 
guished, arrived with a 
company of United 
States marines. He 
forced open the engine 
house of the armory, into 
which Brown, fighting with desperate courage, had retired, 
and captured the leader and his surviving followers. In 
the Virginia courts Brown and six companions were convicted 
of treason, murder, and advising with slaves to rebel, and 
were hanged. 

Fortunately the slaves did not rise at the call of Brown, 
Yet the attempt to incite them sent a thrill of horror through 
the South. An uprising of slaves would have meant the 
massacre of whites. The majority of Ihe people of the North 
condemned the conduct of Brown; still, the fact that promi¬ 
nent Northern citizens had furnished the money for Brown’s 
diabolical scheme and that many others publicly proclaimed 
him a martyr increased the feeling among Southerners that, 
should the North gain complete control of the government, 
the South would not be protected in its rights. 

Topics and Questions 

1. No decided stand was taken on the slavery question by either of 
me great political parties in 1850. What brought the question to the 
front immediately afterward? What were the demands of the North? 
The offers of the South? Why did secession seem more and more 
probable in the South in 1850? What would make the South feel that 
it must leave the Union? 



Harper’s Ferry in 1859 


3 I 4 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

2. What were the main features of Henry Clay’s Compromise of 
1850? What effect was it hoped that the Compromise would have upon 
the country? Why did some oppose the Compromise? Why was it 
the task of the Federal officials to secure the return of runaway slaves? 
What change occurred in the White House in 1850? Account for the 
result of the presidential election of 1852. 

3. Could the Compromise of 1850 silence argument on the slavery 
question? Explain the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Who supported it? 
What previous Act, passed by Congress, was held by states’ rights men 
to be unconstitutional? 

4. Why did both the North and the South fight so hard and so 
bitterly for Kansas? Describe the guerrilla warfare in Kansas and the 
work of John Brown. What was the final result of the contest for 
Kansas? 

5. Explain the terms “personal liberty laws” and “underground 
railroad.” Tell of the rise of the Republican party. 

6. What stirred the nation in the first year of Buchanan’s admin¬ 
istration? State carefully the Dred Scott case and decision. Why 
were the Lincoln-Douglas debates watched with keen interest by all the 
country? 

7. Describe the purpose, deed, and fate of John Brown at Harper’s 
Ferry. Why did the people of the South condemn John Brown, and 
what effect did his crime have upon them? 


Project Exercises 

1. Do compromises usually settle questions finally? Give reasons 
for your opinion and cite cases to support it. 

2. When the United States Supreme Court decides that a law is 
unconstitutional, is the decision final? 

Important Dates: 

1850. Adoption of Clay’s “Compromise of 1850.” 

1854. Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. 

1857. Dred Scott decision. 

1859 John Brown’s raid. 


CHAPTER XXVIII 

THE SOUTH FORMS A SEPARATE GOVERNMENT 

Election of 1860. — Four tickets were presented at the 
presidential election of i860. The Democratic party had 
split in two. The Northern wing held that a territory 
could at any time decide for or against slavery within its 
borders; the Southern wing held that a territory could not 
decide until it formed a state constitution. 

The Northern wing supported Stephen A. Douglas of 
Illinois for President; the Southern wing supported John 
C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. The Republicans, still de¬ 
manding that Congress prohibit slavery in the territories, 
nominated Abraham Lincoln of Illinois. A fourth party, 
called the Constitutional Union party, made no declaration 
regarding slavery. It relied on the simple platform, “The 
Constitution, the Union, and the enforcement of the laws.” 
Its nominee for President was John Bell of Tennessee. 

The Republicans carried the election. Lincoln received 
a majority of the electoral vote, though almost two thirds 
of the popular vote had gone against him — a fact which 
makes it possible that if the Democrats had not divided, 
Lincoln would not have been elected. 

Secession of Seven Southern States. — The states that 
the Republicans carried were all in the North. The South 
looked upon the Republican party as sectional in character 
and hostile to Southern interests. It had long been a 
settled conviction in the South that the political success of 
such a party would leave only secession as a preventive 
of ruin. Therefore the state of South Carolina, assembled 
in convention, in December 20, i860, declared that state no 
longer one of the United States. Secession ordinances were 
passed early in 1861 by other Southern States as follows: 

315 


316 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Mississippi, January 9; Florida, January 10; Alabama, 
January 11; Georgia, January 19; Louisiana, January 26; 
Texas, February 1. Upon the secession of the states, their 

Senators and Representatives, 
with but one or two exceptions, 
withdrew from Congress. 

The Doctrine of Secession. — 
Advocates of states’ rights had 
always regarded secession as the 
final resort for the protection of 
the interests of a state. Their 
argument for the legal right of 
secession was that the state had 
always been supreme; that the 
war for independence, though 
waged jointly by the states, 
was waged by them as distinct 
sovereignties, and that Great 
Britain acknowledged the inde¬ 
pendence of each state by name; 
that when the states united 
under the Constitution, not 
one of them renounced its sov¬ 
ereignty, and each could with¬ 
draw from the compact whenever it saw fit to do so. 

The Union when the Constitution was Adopted. — The 
common view taken of the Union at the time of the adoption 
of the Constitution was that it was a compact from which 
the states could withdraw. Indeed, if the right of a state 
to secede had then been denied, the Constitution could not 
have been adopted, and the Union could not have been 
formed. An attempt was made in the convention that 
framed the Constitution to give Congress power to use 
military force to compel a state to obey the Federal law. 
This attempt failed because it was well understood that 
the state so attacked would probably quit the Union. 1 

1 See Madison Papers, pp. 372, 914; Elliott’s Debates, pp. 232-233. 


CURLESNR 

MERCURY 


EXTRA. 



THE 

UNION 

DISSOLVED! 

A Charleston Broadside 






THE SOUTH FORMS A SEPARATE GOVERNMENT 317 

The right of secession was so thoroughly recognized that 
most states did not consider its assertion necessary when 
they ratified the Constitution, yet as a precaution, Virginia, 
New York, and Rhode Island clearly proclaimed it (see 
page 174). 

Northern View of Secession. — It has been shown that 
New Englanders, in the belief that the influence of the South 
and West was injurious to their interests, threatened seces¬ 
sion for twenty-five years after the adoption of the Consti¬ 
tution (see Chapter XIX); that, when a change came in the 
business interests of the North, including New England, 
Northerners found it necessary to take a different view 
of the Constitution to suit their new conditions. They 
then wished to allow the Federal government powers 
not expressly granted (see page 254). So, because their 
larger population gave them greater power in Congress, 
protective tariffs multiplied mills and factories; bounties 
and subsidies developed commerce; and improvement of 
rivers and harbors made transportation easier. Through 
these benefits the Northern people in general came to 
look upon the government as the best on the face of the 
globe and to regard it as national in character, with the 
states subordinate. Otherwise the states could continue 
to separate from one another until there would be a number 
of petty states in the place of one great republic. To the 
North the Union became sacred and secession unlawful. 1 

The Southern View. — On the other hand, the interests 
of the South had not changed since the framing of the 
Constitution. They were agricultural in i860, just as they 
had been in 1787; hence the legislation that had so aided 
the Northerner had not helped the Southerner. Southern 
men complained that their section was burdened with taxes 
for the benefit of the other section, and insisted that the 
Constitution, which had been framed by the fathers to do 
equal justice to all, be strictly observed. 

1 As late as 1844, however, the Massachusetts legislature, in op¬ 
posing the annexation of Texas, acknowledged the right of secession. 


318 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Then came the slavery question. The North believed 
that its control of the general government would be threat¬ 
ened by the admission of slaveholding states into the Union; 
moreover, the belief that slavery was in itself wrong intensi¬ 
fied the North’s objection to it. 

And now the South saw the Republican party triumphant 
— a party which had declared that slavery should be ex¬ 
cluded from the territories in spite of the Supreme Court’s 
decision that such exclusion was unconstitutional. Be¬ 
lieving that her rights would not be secure under a govern¬ 
ment which would soon be in the control of the Republicans, 
the South thought that the time had come for forming a 
separate government. 

The underlying cause of the war between the sections 
was the conflict of Northern and Southern interests. 

Efforts at Compromise. — When the Southern states 
seceded, differing opinions as to the proper course to pursue 
divided the Northern people into three classes: (i) Those 
who believed that states had a right to separate, and that 
the North should permit the seceding states to go in peace 
father than attempt to hold them by force; (2) Those who 
denied the right of secession, but were willing to make a 
compromise of the questions that were dividing the Union; 
(3) Those who both denied the right of secession and opposed 
any compromise. The first two classes, combined, const!- 
tuted a majority; while the third class, the minority, was 
the Republican party. 

Compromise bills, intended to bring peace to the distracted 
country, had been introduced into Congress. The most 
important one was proposed by Senator Crittenden of Ken¬ 
tucky. It provided among other things: (1) For a Consti¬ 
tutional Amendment (the Dred Scott decision making an 
amendment necessary), extending the Missouri Compromise 
line to the eastern boundary of California; (2) For a less 
objectionable fugitive slave law. The former was intended 
to conciliate the South and the latter the North. The 
compromise might have averted war, but the Republicans 


THE SOUTH FORMS A SEPARATE GOVERNMENT 319 

in Congress refused to agree to it. Nor would they consent 
to submit the matter to a vote of the people. 

Virginia, hoping to save the Union, as once before it had 
done when the old Confederation was in danger of breaking 
up, invited the other states to join in a peace conference. 
In response, delegates from twenty-one states met in Wash¬ 
ington, in February, 1861, the venerable ex-President 
Tyler presiding. The recommendations of the conference, 
however, were not accepted by Congress. 

Buchanan’s View. — In the few remaining months of 
his administration, President Buchanan did nothing to 
hinder the secession of the Southern states. He held that, 
while a state had no right to secede, the Federal government 
had no right to force it to remain in the Union. Com¬ 
missioners from South Carolina waited upon the President 
to negotiate for the transfer of forts and other Federal prop¬ 
erty within the state on peaceable terms, but the President 
refused to treat with them. 

The “Star of the West.” — Fort Sumter, in Charleston 
harboi, was garrisoned by a small force of United States 
soldiers. South Carolina made 
no attempt to take the fort; 
but when Buchanan sent a 
vessel, the Star of the West, with 
provisions and reenforcements for 
its relief, the state felt justified 
in resisting. Militia fired upon 
the vessel on January 9, 1861, compelling it to retire. 

The Confederate States of America. — In February, 
1861, delegates from six of the seceding states met in Mont¬ 
gomery, Alabama, to organize a government. 1 A temporary 
constitution for the “Confederate States of America” was 
adopted. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was elected Presi¬ 
dent, and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, Vice President. 
Soon afterward a permanent constitution was adopted. 

The Confederate Constitution was similar in most respects 
1 Representatives from Texas did not arrive until later. 



Fort Sumter 


320 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

to the Federal Constitution, though there were some decided 
differences. The terms of President and Vice President were 

fixed at six years, and these 
officers were ineligible to re- 
election. Powers which the 
Federal government had as¬ 
sumed, but to which the states’ 
rights people had always 
objected, such as internal im¬ 
provements, protective tariffs, 
and bounties, were forbidden. 

Thus, when Lincoln was 
inaugurated, March 4, 1861, 
there were two governments 
where before there had been 
only one. The failure of all 
the attempts to bring the 
sections together through a compromise caused keen regret. 
Excitement was intense throughout the country. 

All forts in the seceding states that could be peaceably 
taken were occupied by the Confederacy. Fort Sumter, 
at Charleston, Fort Pickens, at Pensacola, and the forts near 
Key West contained small garrisons. Wishing to avoid war, 
the Confederates did not seize these forts, but relied upon 
securing them through negotiation. 

Lincoln’s Policy. — The excitement and anxiety of the 
times are evident from the fact that unusual precautions 
were taken to prevent the assassination of Lincoln. The 
President-elect entered Washington secretly and was in¬ 
augurated under the protection of a military guard. 

In his inaugural address Lincoln denied the right of seces¬ 
sion, and announced that he would “hold, occupy, and 
possess the property and places belonging to the government, 
and collect tiie duties and imports.” Now that com¬ 
promise had failed, and the only question was whether the 
Union should be allowed to divide, the people of the North 
heartily approved of Lincoln’s announcement. On the 



Alexander H. Stephens 



JEFFERSON DAVIS 
















THE SOUTH FORMS A SEPARATE GOVERNMENT 321 

other hand, the South, believing in its right to a separate 
government, regarded Lincoln’s words as equivalent to a 
declaration of war. Hereafter the Federal government could 
not continue to hold Southern forts and to collect duties 
in the South except through force of arms. 



The Capitol at Montgomery 


The Confederacy, hoping for peaceful secession, had sent 
commissioners to Washington to effect a transfer of forts and 
all other property within its borders, and an adjustment 
©£ the public debt, but the mission failed. The Federal 
authorities, not recognizing the Confederate government as 
legal, of course could not recognize its commissioners. 

Topics and Questions 

1. What were the parties, the platforms, and the names of the 
presidential candidates of i860? 

2. Recount the reason and the progress of secession in the South. 

3. State the argument of those who believed in the right of secession. 
Give the view as to the right of secession that was generally accepted 
p.t the time of the adoption of the Constitution. Explain why opinion 
In the North changed, and in the South remained unchanged. 

4. Describe the attempts at compromise. What was the result of 
the peace conference proposed by Virginia? 

5. What was the attitude of President Buchanan toward secession? 






















322 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

State the object of the commissioners sent from South Carolina to the 
President. Why did President Buchanan dispatch the Star of the West 
to Fort Sumter, and why did the South Carolina militia fire upon it? 

6. When and where was the government of the Confederate States 
of America organized? Who were elected its President and Vice 
President? Give some facts regarding the Constitution of the Con¬ 
federate States of America. 

7. What was the exact situation at the close of President Buchanan's 
administration? 

8. What idea of the Union, and of his own duty in maintaining it, 
did Lincoln give in his inaugural address? How did the North receive 
his words? How did the South? Why did the Confederate com= 
missions fail to adjust matters at Washington? 


Project Exercises 

1. Review all threats of secession and nullification which had been 
made in any part of the Union up to i860. 

2. Give briefly the history of the great compromises on slavery. 

Important Dates: 

i860. Election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United 
States. 

1860. Secession of South Carolina. 

1861. Secession of other Southern states. 

i86i. Organization of the Confederate States of America; Jefferson 
Davis, President. 


CHAPTER XXIX 

EARLY EVENTS OF THE WAR OF SECESSION ( 1861 - 1862 ) 


Fall of Fort Sumter. — Major Robert Anderson, of the 
United States army, occupied Fort Sumter in Charleston 
harbor with a command numbering less than one hundred. 
The Confederates covered the fort with the guns of the 
other forts in the harbor and of the batteries they had 
erected, yet peace was unbroken as long as there was hope 
of a quiet evacuation of Fort Sumter. 

Early in April, 1861, a Federal fleet was ordered to the 
relief of Major Anderson, and General P. G. T. Beauregard, 
commanding the Confederate 
forces at Charleston, summoned 
him to surrender. Anderson 
declined, and on April 12 the 
Confederates opened fire upon 
the fort with many guns. 

Sumter returned the fire, but the 
Federal fleet, which stood out¬ 
side the harbor, took no part in 
the contest. On the afternoon 
of the second day, when the 
fort was on fire from shells, 

Major Anderson surrendered. 

Despite the heavy cannonade, 
not a mail on either side had 
been killed or seriously injured. Thus with a bloodless 
encounter began the bloody War of Secession. 

Effect upon the Country. — The fall of Fort Sumter 
acted like an electric shock. Everybody knew that the war 
had begun. The North, feeling that the government had 
been attacked, rallied to the cause of the Union; the South, 
believing that defense of Southern rights had become neces- 

323 



P. G. T. Beauregard 



324 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

sary, sprang to the support of the Confederacy. President 
Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand militia and many 
more than that number responded. President Davis asked 
for volunteers, and Southerners poured into the Confederate 
army. Americans faced Americans in fratricidal strife, 
each having faith in the justness of his cause. 

Secession of Four Other States. — Lincoln’s call for troops 
caused four other states to withdraw. Rather than join 

in war waged to force 
the Confederate states 
back into the Union, 
Virginia seceded April 17; 
Arkansas, May 6; North 
Carolina, May 20; Ten¬ 
nessee, June 8. These 
states immediately 
joined the Confederacy. 
The Confederate capi¬ 
tal was removed from 
Montgomery to Rich¬ 
mond. 

The Border States. — The feeling in favor of secession 
had never been very strong in Delaware. In Maryland, 
Kentucky, and Missouri, where it had many supporters, 
Unionists and Secessionists struggled for control; in these 
states the Union influence at length prevailed. Yet, al¬ 
though they did not secede, the ties binding them to the 
South were close, and they attempted to hold a neutral 
position in the war. 

Neutrality was impossible. In order to reach Washing¬ 
ton, Federal troops came into Maryland; and the state 
was held fast to the Union. 1 Missouri was quickly filled 
with hostile camps. After some sharp fighting a battle 
took place at Wilson’s Creek, in which the Confederates 
were victorious. But by autumn the Confederates had 

1 The occupation of Maryland by Union forces inspired James R. 
Randall to write the well-known poem, “ Maryland, My Maryland.’* 



Capitol at Richmond, 1861 



















































































EARLY EVENTS OF THE WAR OF SECESSION 325 

been compelled to retire before a superior Federal army, and 
had fallen back to the extreme Southern part of the state, 
leaving Missouri to the control of the Federals. In the fall 
some skirmishing occurred in Kentucky without decided 
results, and the year ended with both armies occupying 
the state. 

With neutrality at an end, the people of Maryland, 
Kentucky, and Missouri were divided into two fierce factions, 
brother fighting against brother. Though the majority 
held to the Union, many men from these states became sol¬ 
diers in the Confederate army. 

Western Virginia. — The inhabitants of Virginia west of 
the mountains were opposed to secession, and seeing the 
state withdraw from the Union, they took steps to uphold 
the Federal government. A governor, legislature, and dele¬ 
gation to Congress were elected. The new government 
called itself the state of Virginia, and claimed to have taken 
the place of the state government that had gone into the 
Confederacy. Its delegation was admitted to seats in the 
Federal Congress as Senators and Representatives from 
Virginia. A strong Federal force was sent to aid the in¬ 
habitants in holding this section for the Union. Against 
this force the Confederates could bring only a few men and 
after some months of fighting abandoned western Virginia. 
In 1863 western Virginia was admitted into the Union as 
the separate state of West Virginia. 1 

Unequalness of the Contest. — From the very outset 
the contest between the North and the South was unequal, 
and so it continued until the end of the war. The popu¬ 
lation of the North was in round numbers twenty-two 
millions. The South had nine millions, of which three and 
a half millions were slaves. Thus with respect to popu- 

1 The Constitution of the United States forbids the division of a 
state unless the legislature of the state consents. The legislature of 
the government newly formed in western Virginia, which the United 
States recognized as the government of Virginia, but which was not the 
legislature of Virginia proper, consented to the division of the state. 


326 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

lation from which an army could be drawn, the North was 
four times as great as the South. 1 

The armories of the North contained nearly three times as 
many muskets and rifles as did the armories of the South. 
Even after resorting to country rifles and shot guns, the 
Confederacy was long unable to provide enough small 
arms. All foundries for the manufacture of arms, except 
one for making cannon, and all except two powder mills, 
were in the Northern states. 

The North had varied industries. Its farms raised food 
in abundance, and its factories could make all materials 
needed for war. The South planted cotton and tobacco, 
and did not in times of peace raise food sufficient for its 
inhabitants, but bought much from the North and Europe, 

The Union had a treasury and a navy; the Confederacy 
had neither. The Union could add to its resources by pur¬ 
chases from Europe, but the blockade of the coast of the 
Confederacy, begun by the Federal government soon after 
the war commenced, closed Southern ports to trade. Not 
only did the blockade prevent the Confederacy from secur¬ 
ing arms from abroad, but it shut out some of the neces¬ 
sities of life, and many commodities became very scarce. 

Nature of the Contest. — The effort of the Southern 
states to withdraw, and of the North to prevent them, 
made the war an offensive one on the part of the North and 
a defensive one on the part of the South. This was almost 
the only thing in the South’s favor; yet it meant much, 
because fighting on the defensive is of great advantage to 
an army. 

The Confederacy set to work to make arms and ammu¬ 
nition, blankets, saddles, harness, and other things needed 

1 Census of i860. The comparison is made between the population 
of the non-seceding states and that of the seceding states. The number 
of men that went into the Confederate army from Maryland, Kentucky, 
and Missouri was nearly, if not quite, balanced by the number that 
joined the Union army from western Virginia, east Tennessee, and 
other parts of the South. 


EARLY EVENTS OF THE WAR OF SECESSION 327 

in war; and while it was never able to equip its armies 
properly, the results accomplished were great. 

A Short War Expected. — Neither side believed that the 
war would last more than a few months. The North hoped 
to deal the Confederate army a crushing blow, then seize 
Richmond, and bring the war to a speedy close. The 
South thought that after she had gained a victory or two 
the North would abandon the contest. Federal armies 
were assembled on the borders of Virginia, and Confederate 
troops were hurried to the defense of the state. 

General Irvin McDowell, commanding a Federal army 
in front of Washington, moved against a Confederate army, 



Joseph E. Johnston “Stonewall” Jackson 


under Beauregard, which was stationed on Bull Run, near 
Manassas, Virginia, about twenty-five miles southwest 
from Washington, thus barring the way to Richmond. 
General Joseph E. Johnston, who had a small force in the 
Shenandoah Valley, hastened to the aid of Beauregard. 

First Bull Run, or Manassas. — On Sunday, July 21, 1861, 
men of the North and men of the South grappled in battle. 
The opposing forces were practically equal in numbers — 
each about eighteen thousand men. At first the Confed¬ 
erates were driven back, ,.but rallying and making an im* 


328 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

petuous charge, they routed the Federals. The retreat of 
the Federals became a panic, many of them fleeing until 
they reached Washington. The loss of the Union army in 
killed, wounded, and missing was about three thousand; the 
Confederate loss about two thousand . 1 

The North Aroused. —- The dismay at the North in 
consequence of the defeat was only for the moment. Con¬ 


gress had already authorized the 
enlistment of an army of half 
a million men, and voted an 
immense appropriation for the 
expenses of the war. The 
Northern people, seeing now 
that a tremendous war was on 
their hands, gave the Federal 
government enthusiastic sup¬ 
port. General George B. 
McClellan was appointed to the 
chief command of the Union 
armies. 



Effect on the South. — In 

the South the effect of the 


George B. McClellan 


battle was to give undue confidence. The people believed 
the Southern army would speedily bring the war to a success¬ 
ful close; so, for a time, there was great joy and little effort. 
But the leaders knew better, and they made ready as well 
as they might for a long struggle. 

1 In the first part of the battle, when the Confederates were being 
driven back, the incident occurred that gave the name of “Stonewall” 
to Thomas J. Jackson, a Confederate general soon to become famous. 
Jackson’s troops occupied a rear line, presenting an unbroken front 
with Jackson at their head. “They are beating us back,” exclaimed 
General Bee. “Well, sir,” calmly replied Jackson, “we will give 
them the bayonet.” Turning to the retreating soldiers, Bee called out, 
“There’s Jackson standing like a stone wall.” Immediately the cry 
passed from man to man, “Stonewall Jackson! Stonewall Jackson!” 
The Confederates rallied under the magic name — a name by which 
Jackson has ever since been known the world over. 



EARLY EVENTS OF THE WAR OF SECESSION 329 

Results of 1861. —- The defeat at Bull Run had ended the 
first advance upon Richmond. The rest of the year 1861 
McClellan gave to organizing and equipping thoroughly 
the great army under his command. The first year of the 
war ended with little advantage to either side. The Con¬ 
federates had won the only important battle; but the North 
had succeeded in holding for the Union the border states 
and western Virginia. 

The Armies in 1862. — At the beginning of 1862 the 
Union had six hundred thousand soldiers in the field; the 
Confederacy only half that number. The Confederate line 
of defense extended along the borders of Virginia, through 
southern Kentucky and northern Tennessee, and across the 
Mississippi River into southern Missouri. 

The Federal plan of campaign for the Eastern army had 
for its purpose the capture of Richmond, the Confederate 
capital. For the Western armies the plan was to get con¬ 
trol of the Mississippi, now 
strongly fortified by the Con¬ 
federates. The opening of the 
Mississippi would cut the Con¬ 
federacy in two, and would shut 
off from the Confederate armies 
the large supplies, especially of 
beef, which came from Texas and 
elsewhere west of the river. 

Grant Captures Fort 
Donelson. — Operations began 
first in the West, where the Con¬ 
federate main line, under General 
Albert Sidney Johnston, extended through southern Ken¬ 
tucky and northern Tennessee to the Mississippi River. 
The key to this line was Fort Donelson, near its center, on 
the Cumberland River, in northern Tennessee. About the 
middle of February General Ulysses S. Grant with a Fed¬ 
eral force surrounded the fort. The Confederate garrison 
made a gallant attempt to break through, but were driven 



Albert Sidney Johnston 


330 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

back. Hemmed in by superior numbers the Confederates 
surrendered. 

The fall of Donelson was a great disaster to the Con¬ 
federates. They could no longer hold the remainder of their 
line, and a new line was formed farther southward, extend¬ 
ing from middle Tennessee through the borders of Alabama 
and Mississippi. Nashville, thus given up, was occupied 
by the Federals. 

Battle of Shiloh. — After the capture of Fort Donelson, 
Grant’s army moved in transports up the Tennessee River, 
accompanied by a fleet of gunboats. Disembarking at 
Pittsburgh Landing, in southwestern Tennessee, the troops 
camped near Shiloh Church, about two miles from the river. 

There Grant waited for another 
Federal army under General 
Don Carlos Buell to reenforce 
him, before pushing farther 
southward into the Con¬ 
federacy. The Confederate 
general, Albert Sidney Johnston, 
hoped that, by defeating Grant 
before Buell could join him 
and then defeating Buell, the 
ground lost by the fall of Donel¬ 
son might be regained. On the 
morning of April 6, 1862, the 
Confederates fell with terrible 
onslaught upon Grant’s forces at 
Shiloh and by afternoon had driven the greater part of them 
to the river bank under the protection of the gunboats. At 
the moment when victory seemed assured, the Southerners 
lost their leader, General Johnston. 

In the afternoon and night Buell’s army reached the 
field. The arrival of reenforcements saved Grant’s army. 
The battle, renewed the next day, resulted in forcing the 
Confederates to retreat. This was the severest battle that 
had yet taken place. 



Don Carlos Buell 


EARLY EVENTS OP THE WAR OF SECESSION 


331 




Following their success at Shiloh, the Federals continued 
their advance. The Confederates retreated farther into 
Mississippi. The giving up of 
more territory further ham¬ 
pered the Confederates; for 
it not only broke their second 
line of defense, but also cut the 
railroad system between the 
East and the West; over which 
they had moved troops and 
supplies. 

On the Mississippi.— 

Another severe reverse in the 
West befell the Confederates 
when New Orleans was cap- 
tured April 29, 1862. Com- David g Farragut 
modore David G. Farragut 

entered the mouth of the Mississippi and took possession of 
the city after running past the forts on the river and 

destroying an inferior fleet. 
New Orleans was the largest 
city and chief seaport of the 
Confederacy. 

Shortly afterward the city of 
Memphis on the Mississippi 
fell into the hands of the 
Federals. The Mississippi was 
not yet entirely open to the 
Federals, for between New 
Orleans and Memphis was the 
city of Vicksburg, which the 
Confederates had strongly forti- 
Braxton Bragg hed. From Vicksburg south¬ 

ward the Confederates still 
controlled about two hundred miles of the river. 

Invasion of Kentucky. — General Braxton Bragg, who 
now commanded the Confederate army in the West, en- 



332 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


deavored to carry the war beyond the borders of the Con¬ 
federacy. Late in the summer he invaded Kentucky. 
The Federal army under Buell followed him. The opposing 
forces met in battle at Perryville, and Bragg, on account 
of inferior numbers, withdrew from the field. As he could 
not get reenforcements sufficient to cope with Buell, who had 
been heavily reenforced, Bragg retired to Tennessee. Be¬ 
yond obtaining a large quantity of supplies, Bragg’s cam¬ 
paign had accomplished nothing. The Confederates had 
hoped that Kentuckians would join their army in large 
numbers and that the campaign would compel Grant, who 
with his army had been left in western Tennessee and 
northern Mississippi, to release his hold upon that section; 
but neither result happened. 

Murfreesboro, or Stone River. — The Federal government, 
dissatisfied with Buell for not crushing Bragg’s army while in 


Kentucky, put in his place 
General William S. Rosecrans. 
The new commander ad¬ 
vanced against Bragg, whos<* 
army was in winter quarters aft 
Murfreesboro, Tennessee, on 
Stone River, not far from 
Nashville. Here occurred a 
fiercely contested engagement 
on December 31, 1862, and 
January 2, 1863. It was a 
drawn battle; but as Bragg 
withdrew Rosecrans claimed 



William S. Rosecrans the victory. Both armies had 


been so badly shattered that 


they remained inactive for months. 

The Virginia Armies in 1862. — While success attended 
the 'Union army in the West in 1862, it favored the Con¬ 
federates in the East. The Union army under McClellan, 
known as the Army of the Potomac, whose purpose was to 
capture Richmond, was three times as great as the Confed- 































































































. 
































■ 






EARLY EVENTS OF THE WAR OF SECESSION 333 

erate Army of Northern Virginia under Joseph E. Johnston. 
For months the two armies had remained near Manassas, 
separated by only a few miles. 

McClellan decided that, rather than attack the Con¬ 
federates at Manassas, a better plan would be to approach 
Richmond by way of the Peninsula, as the part of Virginia 
between the York and the James rivers is called. Early 
in April, 1862, he transported most of his army down the 
Chesapeake Bay and landed near the mouth of the York 
River. McClellan moved cautiously toward Richmond, 
although the Confederate force attacking him and impeding 
his progress was much smaller than his. After nearly 
two months, McClellan reached a position within seven 
miles of Richmond. With one hundred thousand men he 
was now within sight of the church steeples of the Confederate 
capital. Johnston stood between him and the city with 
only sixty-three thousand men. 

General Robert E. Lee. — To allow the Federals to ad¬ 
vance farther would mean the probable capture of Richmond; 
therefore the Confederates made a vigorous attack. The 
battle, known as Seven Pines, lasted two days (May 31 
and June 1, 1862). Neither side gained any great advan¬ 
tage. General Johnston was wounded and General Robert 
E. Lee was placed in command of the Confederate army. 
McClellan begged for reenforcements, and an army under 
General McDowell, which had been held to protect Washing¬ 
ton, was ordered to join him. 

Jackson’s Famous Valley Campaign. — “Stonewall” 
Jackson had been stationed, with a very small Confederate 
force, in the Shenandoah Valley in the western part of Vir¬ 
ginia, to protect Richmond from an attack from the rear. 
By rapid marches and by attacking before they could unite 
against him, Jackson had defeated one Federal army after 
another. The dispersion of the Federal troops in the Valley 
left the way open to Washington. There was now conster¬ 
nation in the North, for it was feared that Jackson would 
capture the Federal capital. The militia of some of the 


334 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Northern states was called out; McDowell’s army, which 
had started on it's way to reenforce McClellan, was hurried 
back to defend Washington. But it was no part of the Con¬ 
federate plan for Jackson to attempt the capture of Wash- 



Map of Campaigns in Virginia 


ington. With his small force he could not have held the 
city, even if he had taken it. He came out of the Valley 
and joined Lee in time to take part in the campaign against 
McClellan. Within a month Jackson had marched four 
hundred miles, fought six battles and many skirmishes. 












EARLY EVENTS OF THE WAR OF SECESSION 335 

captured thousands of prisoners and large amounts of 
supplies; he had defeated three armies, had for the time 
freed Richmond of danger from the rear, and had prevented 
McDowell from joining forces with McClellan. 

Seven Days Battles Before Richmond. — Late in June, 
Lee’s army renewed the attack upon the Federals. McClellan 
was forced to abandon his lines in front of Richmond. For 
seven days (June 25-July 1, 1862), the battles raged, 
McClellan retreating down the banks of the James River 
until he reached a point where a strong fleet protected his 
army. Thus failed the Federal campaign in the Peninsula. 

Gloom set in at the North, but there was no intention of 
giving up the contest. Lincoln called for three hundred 
thousand more troops. Lee’s success in this campaign 
gave his soldiers such confidence in him that they believed 
him invincible. In the seven days of fighting the Union 
loss was sixteen thousand; the Confederate loss was twenty 
thousand. 

Second Bull Run, or Manassas. — The armies that Jack- 
son had defeated in the Shenandoah Valley had been united 
near Washington and placed under command of General 
John Pope, while McClellan’s army was yet on the Penin¬ 
sula. Hardly had Lee defeated McClellan when he found 
Pope advancing against him. Lee determined to strike 
Pope before McClellan could reenforce him. As soon as he 
became certain that McClellan’s army was being transferred 
by water from the Peninsula, he hurried forward and de¬ 
feated Pope on the old battlefield of Bull Run, August 29-30, 
1862, before McClellan could get more than a small part of 
his forces on the field. 

Antietam or Sharpsburg. — The Confederate army had 
been greatly reduced by battle and disease, and it lacked 
most of the supplies needed for war. The men were ragged 
and many of them were without shoes, and Lee knew that 
his army was in no condition to capture the strong fortifi¬ 
cations around Washington; still, wishing to relieve the 
pressure upon the South, he marched directly northward. 


336 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


McClellan’s great army followed Lee’s, and at Sharpsburg, 
on Antietam Creek in western Maryland, the armies met, 
on September 17, 1862, in “the bloodiest single day of fight¬ 
ing of the war.” Neither army gained the victory, but as 
McClellan had received reenforcements, Lee recrossed the 
Potomac into Virginia. Antietam had the effect of a Union 
victory. No reenforcements could reach Lee,' and his Mary¬ 
land campaign failed. 

Fredericksburg. — McClellan advanced once more into 
Virginia, but so slowly that the government removed him 
and placed General Ambrose E. Burnside in command of the 
army. Burnside attacked Lee at Fredericksburg on Decem¬ 
ber 13, 1862. The Federals numbered twice as many as the 
Confederates, whose position, however, was exceedingly 
strong. Crossing the Rappahannock River, the Federals 
made six magnificent, but unsuccessful, attempts to dis¬ 
lodge the Confederates. After suffering fearful losses they 
retired across the river. This battle ended the efforts to 
take Richmond in 1862. 

Results of the Campaigns of 1862. — The events of 1862 
were, on the whole, favorable to the Federals. They had 
recovered much of Tennessee and Arkansas, and secured 
control of all but a small part of the Mississippi River; 
while the attempts of Bragg and Lee to carry the war into 
the North had been unsuccessful. Many ports on the 
southern coast had been captured; the blockade was thus 
made more effective, and in the South'the want of supplies of 
every kind was steadily growing greater. Yet all efforts 
to take Richmond had failed, and the war was costing the 
Union vast sums of money. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Why, how, and when did Fort Sumter fall? What was the effect 
upon the North and the South? What states seceded after the fall of 
Fort Sumter? Why could not the border states be neutral? Tell 
how “Maryland, My Maryland” came to be written. Tell the story 
of West Virginia. 

2. Contrast the resources of the North and the South. Why was 


EARLY EVENTS OF THE WAR OF SECESSION 337 

the South fighting on the defensive? What was the advantage 
of this? 

3. Why was a short war expected? What was the object of the 
first campaign? Name opposing leaders and positions. Give details 
of the first battle of Bull Run or Manassas, and its effects upon the 
North and the South. Tell how General T. J. Jackson came to be 
called “Stonewall.” 

4. Contrast the opposing forces of the second year of the war. 
What were the plans of the Federals for their campaigns? 

5. Why did the Confederates wish to hold Fort Donelson? How 
did the Union forces succeed in taking this fort? What did they gain 
by capturing it? 

6. Describe General Albert Sidney Johnston’s gallant action at 
Shiloh. What was the result of this battle? What successes did the 
Federals meet with on the Mississippi River? 

7. How did Bragg take the offensive in the West? How did Buell 
meet him at Perryville? What was the result? What are the details 
of the battle of Murfreesboro? 

8. What was the position of the armies in Virginia at the beginning 
of 1862? Describe McClellan’s plan and his advance upon Richmond. 
How was his advance stopped? Who succeeded General Johnston in 
command of the Confederate army in Virginia? 

9. Describe “Stonewall” Jackson’s famous campaign in the Shenan¬ 
doah Valley. What great fear did his campaign arouse in the North? 
How did the Federal campaign on the Peninsula fail? Tell the effect 
upon the North. Upon the South. 

10. Describe the second battle of Bull Run or Manassas. Explain 
why Antietam had the effect of a Union victory. Tell of the battle of 
Fredericksburg. Sum up the results of the war in 1862. 

Project Exercises 

1. What had been the life of Abraham Lincoln up to 1861? Of 
Jefferson Davis? Describe General Robert E. Lee’s training for chief 
command of the Confederate army. (See biographies of Lincoln, 
Davis and Lee in the Appendix.) 

2. Find on the map all the places mentioned in this chapter. Show 
on the map how much of the Mississippi River had fallen under the 
control of the Federals by 1862. 

Important Dates: 

1861. Fall of Fort Sumter. 

1861. First battle of Bull Run or Manassas. 

1862. Battle of Shiloh. 

1862. Failure of the Federal Campaign on the Peninsula. 

1862. Battle of Antietam, or Sharpsburg. 


CHAPTER XXX 


FOREIGN COMPLICATIONS, EMANCIPATION, 
CONSCRIPTION 

South Hopes for European Aid. — Europe had always 
obtained most of her cotton from the South. Now that the 
blockade of the Southern ports by the Federal navy pre¬ 
vented the shipment of the staple, cotton factories in Europe 
were compelled to run on part time or shut down altogether. 
The suffering that followed was greatest in England where 
the livelihood of so many persons depended on the cotton 
industry. Many, though perhaps never a majority, of the 
English people wished that their government would recog¬ 
nize the independence of the Confederacy and use its navy 
to break the blockade. France, then an empire under 
Napoleon III, was willing to aid the Confederacy if Great 
Britain would do so. Of course, if another nation had aided 
the Confederacy, the United States would have been com¬ 
pelled to go to war with that nation. More than once 
war between the United States and Great Britain was im¬ 
minent on account of that country’s sympathy with the 
South, and not until many reverses to the Southern armies 
had shown that the Confederacy would probably fail did 
danger of war with Great Britain pass. 

The “Trent” Affair. — Indeed, soon after the war began 
an incident occurred that came near causing the United 
States and Great Britain to clash. James M. Mason of 
Virginia, and John Slidell of Louisiana, were appointed 
commissioners of the Confederate government to Great 
Britain and France respectively, for the purpose of securing 
the aid of these countries. 

The commissioners passed the blockade in the fall of 1861 
and reached Cuba, where they took passage for England 
on the British mail ship Trent. The United States war- 

338 



# 












































































I 










































































FOREIGN COMPLICATIONS, EMANCIPATION 339 

ship San Jacinto , commanded by Captain Wilkes, forcibly 
overhauled the British vessel and carried off Mason and 
Slidell. The North applauded Captain Wilkes. But it was 
a serious matter to attack and board a vessel belonging to 
a neutral nation. To put a stop to such acts, the United 
States had fought the War of 1812. 

Great Britain demanded the release of the prisoners, in 
the meantime preparing for war in case the demand was not 
complied with. The United States government, recognizing 
that a wrong act had been committed, delivered Mason and 



Monitor and Merrimac 

Slidell to Great Britain, and the danger of a foreign war was 
for a time averted. 

Trying to Break the Blockade. — When the Federal 
authorities, upon the secession of Virginia, abandoned the 
navy yard at Norfolk, they sank the Merrimac , a war frigate. 
The Confederates raised the vessel and made it an ironclad, 
calling it the Virginia , though it is still generally known by 
the old name of Merrimac. The Merrimac when refitted 
resembled a huge ark. With this vessel the Confederates 
hoped to destroy the wooden ships of the United States navy 
and, by doing so, break the blockade. On an afternoon 


340 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


early in 1862, the Merrimac steamed into Hampton Roads 
and destroyed two frigates, ran another aground, and 
scattered the rest of the Union fleet. 

The completion of the work of destruction was expected 
next day; but in the night the Monitor , an invention of 
John Ericsson, arrived in Hampton Roads. The Monitor 
looked like a “cheese box on a raft,” little of it showing above 
water except a small turret from which cannon were fired. 
When morning came the Merrimac and the Monitor met in a 
fierce duel. Not much damage was done to either vessel, 
but the engagement ended by the Monitor's getting into 
water too shallow for the Merrimac to follow. Nevertheless, 
the Monitor had, by saving the Union fleet, preserved the 
blockade. 

This was the first time that vessels completely iron-clad 
had been in battle, and the harmless way in which shots 
struck their coats of armor showed that the days of wooden 
ships of war were over. Nations at once began to build 
armored vessels. 1 

Confederate Privateers and Cruisers. — The Confeder¬ 
acy began the war with no navy. Under the authority of 

the Confederate govern¬ 
ment, privateers caused 
many losses to the com- 
merce of the United 
States. Afterward the 
Confederacy itself fitted 
out vessels of war, known 
as cruisers. The priva¬ 
teers and cruisers almost 
drove the commerce of the United States from the seas. 
The most famous of the cruisers was the Alabama , com¬ 
manded by Captain (later Rear Admiral) Raphael Semmes. 
After sailing all over the world, everywhere capturing mer- 

1 Later in 1862, when the Confederates evacuated Norfolk, they 
blew up the Merrimac to keep it from falling into the hands of the 
Federals. 



The Cruiser 41 Alabama” 


FOREIGN COMPLICATIONS, EMANCIPATION 341 


chant vessels belonging to the United States, it was sunk by 
the United States war vessel Kear sage, in a furious battle 
fought near the coast of France, in the summer of 1864. 
Semmes and most of his crew were saved. 

Some of the Confederate cruisers, including the Alabama, 
were built in Great Britain, and this fact increased the feel¬ 
ing in the United States against that country. Great Britain 
in permitting the vessels to be built in her waters violated 
neutrality, and after the close of the war the United States 
obtained from the British government large damages in 
money (see page 385). 

What the North Fought for. — The North was fighting 
to prevent the division of the Union, and not for the abolition 
of slavery. Lincoln declared in his inaugural address, “I 
have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the 
institution of slavery in the states where it exists. I believe 
that I have no lawful right to do so; and I have no incli¬ 
nation to do so.” 

After the war began, however, the pressure upon Congress 
by the abolitionists became very great. The occasion ap¬ 
peared favorable to them for the forcible abolition of slavery. 
As a war measure, Congress passed, in 1861, a law declaring 
that slaves used by the Confederates in carrying on the war 
would be confiscated. 

The Emancipation Proclamation. — As the war progressed 
and it became evident that the defense of the South could 
be broken down by only the hardest struggle, the idea that 
all slaves in the Confederacy should be set free in order to 
weaken the power of the South constantly gained strength 
in the North. 

President Lincoln had entered upon his administration 
with the belief that he had no lawful right to interfere with 
slavery where it already existed, and with no intention of 
doing so; but he gradually reached the conclusion that, 
as the slaves were raising the supplies that fed the Confeder¬ 
ate soldiers and were serving as laborers in the Confederate ' 
army, “it was a military necessity absolutely essential for 


342 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

the salvation of the nation” that the slaves be emancipated. 
Moreover, since the feeling against slavery was strong in 
Great Britain, Lincoln believed that, if the destruction of 
slavery were made a part of the purpose of the North in 
waging the war, the desire among the British people to aid 
the Confederacy would decrease. 

In September, 1862, Lincoln issued a proclamation giving 
warning that all persons held as slaves in any state, or part 
of a state, that was still in arms against the United States 
on January 1, 1863, would then be free. On January 1, 
1863, he issued a second proclamation, declaring forever 
free the slaves in the states of the Confederacy except in 
such parts as were under control of the United States 
forces. 1 

The Constitution did not give the President the specific 
right to abolish slavery, and Lincoln himself said the procla¬ 
mation had “no constitutional or legal justification, except 
as a war measure”; of course the proclamation could be¬ 
come effective only through force of arms. 

Conscription or Draft Laws. — In all previous wars, since 
the regular army was never large, the country had depended 
upon militia and volunteers. In no war had this plan proved 
satisfactory. The War of Secession had become one of 
such magnitude and so destructive of life that the plan was 
no longer possible. The large armies required could not 
be gained from militia and volunteers. The Confederacy 
passed, in 1862, a conscription, or draft law, requiring every 
able-bodied citizen between certain ages to serve in the army. 
As the war went on and the Confederacy became more and 
more in need of recruits, the law was so extended that it 
finally included old men and youths. 

The Federal government passed a draft law that com- 

1 The proclamation did not free the slaves in Delaware, Maryland, 
Kentucky, or Missouri, which had not joined the Confederacy, or in 
Tennessee, which had been almost entirely regained for the Union. 
Certain sections of Virginia and Louisiana, which had come under 
control of Federal forces, were also not included. 



Abraham Lincoln 
From a photograph taken in i860 






















FOREIGN COMPLICATIONS, EMANCIPATION 343 


pelled a citizen, whose name was selected by lot, to serve 
in the army or furnish a substitute . 1 In order to raise 
enough troops it became necessary to enforce the draft law 
so rigidly that much opposition to it was aroused. A riot 
occurred in New York City, in which a thousand persons 
were killed and a million and a half dollars worth of prop¬ 
erty was destroyed. Negroes especially were the victims of 
the mob. Many of them were beaten to death or hanged to 
trees or lamp posts. Nevertheless the draft was successful 
in securing soldiers for the Union army, while the constant 
loss of territory had reduced the area in which the Con¬ 
federacy could recruit its armies by the conscription law. 

The conscription, or draft, is the most democratic method 
of raising an army. In a democracy where the duties of 
citizenship fall equally upon every man, it is a right belong¬ 
ing to no man to stay at home while others fight his battles 
for him. 


Topics and Questions 

1. Explain why the South hoped to get aid from Europe. Why 
were commissioners sent to Europe by the Confederate government? 
Explain the “Trent Affair.” 

2. How did the Confederates try to destroy the blockade early in 
1862? What was the result? What effect did the battle between the 
Monitor and the Merrimac have upon the naval history of the world? 

3. Tell the story of Raphael Semmes and his ship, the Alabama . 
Why did the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers cause com¬ 
plications with Great Britain? 

4. State the cause for which the Union men were fighting. What 
was the Proclamation of Emancipation? On what grounds was it 
issued? Had Lincoln been inconsistent on the slavery question? 

5. What did the Confederate conscription laws demand? Why did 
the North need to draft soldiers in the Federal army? How was the 
draft received in the North? Why is conscription or draft the proper 
method for raising an army in a democracy? 

Important Date: 

1863. Proclamation of Emancipation. 

1 The Federal government did not enact a draft law until 1863, 
but some of the Northern states had to use the draft in raising their 
quotas of troops in 1862. 


CHAPTER XXXI 

HOW THE UNION FORCES WON ( 1863 - 1865 ) 

The Armies in Virginia in 1863. — At the beginning of 
1863, the Army of the Potomac was still on the Rappa¬ 
hannock River, opposite Fredericksburg. General Joseph 
Hooker was in command. The army numbered one hun¬ 
dred and thirty thousand men. The Army of Northern 
Virginia, under Lee and numbering sixty thousand, was at 
Fredericksburg. 

Chancellorsville. — Hooker crossed the river and took a 
position at Chancellorsville, preparatory to attacking Lee; 
but Lee, not waiting for the attack, inflicted upon Hooker 
a severe defeat. This battle lasted two days, May 2 and 

3’ i86 3- 

Great as was the victory, the 
Confederates had paid dearly 
for it, for they lost “Stonewall” 
Jackson, who was killed by his 
own men through mistake. 

Gettysburg. — General Lee 
believed that the time for in¬ 
vading the North had again 
come. A victory on Northern 
soil might bring peace on 
Southern terms or it might, at 
least, cause European powers 
to aid the Confederacy. There¬ 
fore, in June he invaded Penn¬ 
sylvania. The Army of the Potomac, now under com¬ 
mand of General George G. Meade, followed. On July 1, the 
advance columns of the armies met at Gettysburg, and in a 
battle that raged until nightfall, the Federal forces were 
driven back through the town. 

344 



George G. Meade 


HOW THE UNION FORCES WON 


34$ 


The Federals then concentrated on Cemetery Hill, while 
the Confederates occupied Seminary Ridge. These ridges 
are long, low hills facing each other. The full force of each 
army having come up, the battle of the second day, July 2, 
was vigorously contested, but the Federals withstood the 
assaults of the Confederates. 

The third day, July 3, witnessed the last attempt of the 
Confederates to drive the Federals from their position — 
an unsuccessful, but superb, effort. Fifteen thousand 
Confederates, commanded by Generals Pickett, Pettigrew, 
and Trimble, moved steadily forward down the slope of 



The Gettysburg National Military Park 

Looking southwest over the fields across which Pickett charged. Round top 
at the upper left part. The “ clump of trees ” in the middle distance 


Seminary Ridge. They had almost a mile to march before 
reaching the Federal army, which was posted behind a 
stone wall and earthworks on the top of Cemetery Hill. 
Cannon from Federal batteries raked the gray line; deadly 
volleys from Federal infantry poured upon it. Pausing 
only to close the gaps made by the falling of the killed and 
wounded, the Confederates pressed on. Now a storm of 
shot and shell mowed them down, yet some hundred of the 
brave men succeeded in climbing over the stone wall. They 
pierced the first line of the Federals, capturing cannon and 
carrying their flags to the ridge, but they could do no more. 



346 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATEb 

The position was too strong. The great charge had failed. 
Thousands of the Confederates had fallen, and the shattered 
ranks retreated down the hill. The Federals who repulsed 
the Confederate assault were General Winfield Scott Han¬ 
cock and his veteran corps. The Federals gave up many 
lives in making their gallant stand. Cemetery Hill was 
red that day with the best blood of America. 



Lee Retreats into Virginia. — At Gettysburg the Union 
army numbered about ninety-three thousand men and the 
Confederates about seventy thousand. The losses were: 
Union, twenty-three thousand; Confederate, twenty thou¬ 
sand. Lee retreated into Virginia, the Federal army fol¬ 
lowing; but no general engagement occurred for the rest 
of the year between the two armies in the East. 

Vicksburg. — Grant was still holding western Tennessee 
and northern Mississippi, as Bragg’s invasion of Kentucky 
had failed to loosen his hold upon these districts. He 
















HOW THE UNION FORCES WON 


347 


had already attempted without success to take Vicksburg 
when, in the spring of 1863, he renewed his campaign against 
that city. Twice Grant tried to take Vicksburg by assault, 
but each time he was repulsed with heavy loss by the Con¬ 
federate army in the city, commanded by General John C. 
Pemberton. Then Grant laid siege for the purpose of starv¬ 
ing the Confederates into surrender. The Federal fleet on 
the river and the siege guns of the army joined in a heavy 
bombardment of Vicksburg. Women and children found 
refuge from the shells in caves dug in the hillsides. Food 
became so scarce that rats and mules were eaten. The 
Confederate soldiers, wasted by disease and hunger, and by 
watching and fighting in the trenches, held out until July 4, 
1863, when Pemberton was compelled to surrender the 
city. 

Results of the Vicksburg Campaign. — The Confeder¬ 
ate loss at Vicksburg in men killed and captured was very 
heavy, and in the reduced condition of the Confederacy 
these men could not be replaced. With the fall of Vicks¬ 
burg the Mississippi River was quickly opened through all 
its length to the Federals; and the Confederacy, now cut 
in two, could no longer obtain for its armies east of the river 
supplies and recruits from the vast area west of the river. 

Chickamauga and Chattanooga. — Since the battle of 
Murfreesboro, in which both armies were so badly shattered, 
the Federal army under Rosecrans and the Confederate 
army under Bragg had done little more than watch each 
other from their camps in middle Tennessee. 

In the summer, Rosecrans advanced against Bragg. 
With his superior force he overlapped his opponent’s lines 
and thus, by flanking movements, could get in the rear of 
Bragg. To escape being flanked, Bragg was compelled to 
retreat day by day. He gave up Chattanooga, which the 
Federals immediately occupied (Sept. 9, 1863). 

On reaching northern Georgia, Bragg turned upon his 
pursuer, for his army had been reenforced and he was now 
able to cope with the Union army. September 19 and 20, 


348 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

1863, in Chickamauga Valley, on a creek by the same name, 
the armies met in the severest two days’ battle of the war. 
On the second day the right wing of the Federals was broken, 
but the left wing nobly held its ground against repeated 
charges. After nightfall it retired from the battlefield. 
The loss of the Confederates was nearly twenty thousand, 
and that of the Federals nearly seventeen thousand. 

After the battle of Chickamauga, Rosecrans concentrated 
his army in Chattanooga. Bragg occupied strong positions 
on the mountains nearby, and laid siege to the city. 

The Federal authorities hurried troops from Vicksburg 
and from the army in Virginia to the relief of Rosecrans. 
Grant, who had been placed in chief command of the Federal 
armies in the West, and had come in person to Chattanooga, 
determined to raise the siege. In battles lasting three days, 
November 23, 24, and 25, 1863, and known as the battles 
of Chattanooga, Lookout Mountain, and Missionary Ridge< 
the Confederates were driven from their positions overlook¬ 
ing the city. Compelled to raise the siege of Chattanooga, 
Bragg retreated into Georgia. The Federals in gaining 
Chattanooga had reached very near the heart of the 
Confederacy. 

Results of the Campaigns of 1863. — The fortunes of 
the Confederacy were sinking. Gettysburg, Vicksburg, and 
Chattanooga were reverses that would have been sufficient 
to crush a less dauntless people. The results of the year 
had greatly cheered the North, and although its cost was 
increasing enormously, preparations were made to push the 
war still more vigorously. 

The Opposing Forces in 1864. — The year 1864 found the 
Federals in a position to wage vigorous campaigns against 
the Confederates. Their army in Virginia, larger than it 
had ever been, faced the Confederate army reduced by its 
losses in the Gettysburg campaign. In the West, where the 
Federals had reached Chattanooga, their army also con¬ 
fronted a much smaller Confederate army. Both of the 
Federal armies were thoroughly equipped, while the dimin- 


HOW THE UNION FORCES WON 


349 


ishing resources of the South could keep the Confederate 
armies only poorly supplied. 

Grant Commander-in-Chief. — Grant, who had managed 
affairs in the West with such great results for the Union 
cause, while one Federal commander after another in the 
East had met with defeat or only partial success, was placed 
in command of all the armies of the United States, with the 
rank of lieutenant-general. 

Grant realized that the speediest way to overthrow the 
Confederacy was to destroy its armies at whatever cost to 
the Federals. Since the South now had all its men in the 
field, it could not replace those it should hereafter lose, 
while the North could keep the ranks of its armies filled 
with recruits. 

While in command of all the armies, Grant took charge 
in person of the army in Virginia facing Lee. General 
William T. Sherman commanded 
the Federal army at Chattanooga, 
and General Joseph E. Johnston 
had succeeded Bragg in com¬ 
mand of the Confederate army 
opposing him. Grant’s plan was 
for his army to press Lee’s, and 
Sherman’s to press Johnston’s, 
so constantly that neither Con¬ 
federate commander would be 
able to send reenforcements to 
the other. 

The Campaign against Rich¬ 
mond.— Early in May, 1864, 

Grant began operations with the intention of passing around 
Lee’s right flank and getting between him and Richmond. 
Immediately the armies grappled in a duel to the death. 
Every time Grant shifted his army to pass around Lee, he 
found that Lee had also shifted his army and was again 
barring the way. Grant would then try to break through 
Lee’s lines, but always without success. The severest 



William Tecumseh Sherman 



350 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

battles in this campaign were the Wilderness, Spottsylvania 
and Cold Harbor, The loss of life on both sides was fear¬ 
ful, but it was much greater on the Federal side. A month, 
spent in fighting and marching, carried the armies about 
sixty miles to the James River, east of Richmond. Grant 
had lost almost as many men as Lee had under his command 
when the campaign began, yet he was no nearer Richmond 
than McClellan had been two years previously. But 
Federal losses were repaired by reenforcements, while Grant’s 
hammering process was wearing away the Confederate army. 
He “was simply giving two men for one, a thing that he 
could easily do and still have some left after the last Confeder¬ 
ate had perished.” On the other hand, the skill with which 



Scene in the Shenandoah Valley 


Lee, in the face of such great odds, thwarted Grant’s plan 
has placed the Confederate commander in the front rank 
of the world’s greatest generals. 

Siege of Petersburg. — Grant had hoped to give Lee a 
crushing blow north of Richmond, but having failed, he 
decided to cross the James River to approach Richmond 
from the south by way of Petersburg. Immediately after 
crossing the river, Grant made assaults upon the works at 
Petersburg. Unable, however, to break through, he laid 
siege to the city. 

Early and Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley. — Lee, 
hoping to make Grant weaken his army in front of Peters¬ 
burg by sending troops to the defense of Washington, 


HOW THE UNION FORCES WON 


3Si 

directed General Jubal A. Early to push rapidly down the 
Shenandoah Valley and make an attempt to capture the 
Federal capital. Early succeeded in reaching the fortifica¬ 
tions of Washington, but finding the city very strongly 
guarded, marched his little force back to the valley. His 
raid alarmed the North and caused President Lincoln to 
call for volunteers to defend the capital. 

Grant, seeing the importance of the Shenandoah Valley, 
which opened the way for invasions of the North and 
furnished a great amount of supplies to Lee’s army, ordered 
General Philip H. Sheridan, with strong forces, to drive 
out the Confederates and lay waste the valley. Sheridan 
defeated Early in three hotly contested battles (September 
and October, 1864) and drove him southward up the valley. 
The Federal general laid waste the country so completely for 
miles around, that it was said that a crow flying over it 
would have to carry its rations. 

Early’s campaign had been a failure in all respects for the 
Confederates. The loss of supplies from the Shenandoah 
Valley seriously crippled Lee’s army. Even the advance 
upon Washington had no results. Enough troops had been 
obtained for the defense of the city without reducing Grant’s 
immense army. 

Lee’s Difficult Position. — Having failed to carry the Con¬ 
federate works, Grant strengthened his own so that they could 
be held by a small force, and used the rest of his army in 
flanking Lee’s position. The Confederates had a hard task. 
They had to defend both Petersburg and Richmond, cities 
twenty-one miles apart. As Grant swung his troops to the 
right or left, Lee would stretch out his line so far that, with 
his much smaller numbers, the Confederate works became 
thinly manned at every point. 

When winter set in, active operations ceased. The Vir¬ 
ginia campaign for the year 1864, including the movements 
in the valley, had cost the Union army one hundred and 
twenty-five thousand men. The Confederates had suffered 
a much smaller loss; but with Grant’s grip tightening around 


352 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

their diminishing forces, their position was becoming every 
day more difficult to hold. 

The Georgia Campaign. — Soon after Sherman started 
from Chattanooga on his campaign against Johnston, his 
army was increased to one hundred and twelve thousand 
men. Johnston had sixty-five or seventy thousand. With 
his greatly superior numbers Sherman could press Johnston’s 
front while threatening his rear by flanking. In the month 
of May, 1864, a series of engagements took place with no 
decided advantage to either side, but Sherman’s flanking 
movements caused Johnston constantly to fall back. At 
Kennesaw Mountain, near Marietta, Georgia, Sherman 



Chattanooga, Tennessee, in 1864 


desisted from his flanking movements to assault Johnston’s 
strong position, but was driven back with heavy losses. 

Sherman then resumed his flanking tactics, and early in 
July Johnston retired to Atlanta. Johnston had succeeded 
well in his plans: he had avoided battle except when his 
smaller numbers could fight to advantage, and his retreat 
had been masterly. He had fortified Atlanta, hoping to 
hold the city against Sherman. 

But the Confederate government, dissatisfied because 
Sherman had been allowed to penetrate so far into the Con¬ 
federacy, removed Johnston and placed General John B. 
Hood in command just as the Union army appeared before 
Atlanta. 














HOW THE UNION FORCES WON 


353 


Battle of Atlanta. — Hood adopted an aggressive policy. 
He attacked whenever Sherman attempted to flank him. 
The battle of Atlanta, fought 
on the outskirts of the city, 

July 22, was the severest of 
the Georgia campaign; yet it 
did not relieve the situation for 
the Confederates. 

Sherman seized the only rail¬ 
road that carried supplies to 
Hood’s army in Atlanta and 
compelled the Confederates 
to evacuate the city. The 
Federals immediately took pos¬ 
session of Atlanta. 1 

Sherman’s “March to the 
Sea.” — Hood moved his army 
northward, destroying, as he marched, the railroad from 
Chattanooga over which Sherman received his supplies. 
Hood believed that his movement would cause Sherman 
to retreat into Tennessee. But Sherman, after having 
“thoroughly destroyed Atlanta save its mere dwelling houses 
and churches,” started his army, November 15, on a march 
to the sea, with the intention of joining Grant in a com¬ 
bined movement to destroy Lee’s army. The resources of 
the Confederacy were now so nearly exhausted that, with 
Hood’s army in Tennessee, there were no forces to oppose 
Sherman except a small body of cavalry under General 

1 When Sherman started on his Georgia campaign, he ordered 
troops at Memphis to give the Confederate cavalry under General 
Nathan B. Forrest, then in northern Mississippi, such a crushing 
defeat as would prevent them from interfering with the railroads in 
Tennessee over which his army received its supplies. Two expeditions 
were sent against Forrest. The Confederate general defeated each 
Federal force in turn, though in each case the Federal force was double 
the size of his own. Forrest continued so to annoy Sherman that the 
latter offered promotion to the general whose troops would slay or 
capture Forrest. 



John B. Hood 



354 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Joseph Wheeler, and a few Georgia militia. These troops 
resisted, but could do little to retard the great army in its 
march through Georgia. 

Destruction of Property. — Having abandoned their line 
of supplies when they left Atlanta, the Federal troops lived 
upon the country. What they could not use for their own 
needs they destroyed, that it might not be used to feed the 
Confederate armies, and they tore up railroads in order that 
nothing might be sent from Georgia to Lee’s army. Un¬ 
fortunately the country was plundered of much property 
not needed for military purposes. Sherman estimated 
the ruin made by his march to the sea at one hundred million 
dollars. On December 21 his troops entered Savannah, 
the small Confederate garrison having already retreated 
into South Carolina. 

The Confederate Army of the West Shattered. — Mean¬ 
while Hood had continued to march northward. In a hotly 
contested battle at Franklin, Tennessee, in which the Con¬ 
federates suffered frightful losses, Hood failed to prevent a 
strong Federal force from joining General George H. Thomas, 
who was collecting an army at Nashville to oppose him. 
Two weeks later (December 15 and 16, 1864), on the out¬ 
skirts of Nashville, Thomas attacked Hood and put him 
to rout. The Confederate army crippled at the battle of 
Franklin and shattered at the battle of Nashville, retreated 
into Mississippi and went into winter quarters. 

Tightening the Blockade. — In August, Admiral Farragut 
ran his fleet past the forts at the entrance of Mobile harbor, 
just as he had done two years before at New Orleans, and 
defeated the smaller Confederate fleet in Mobile Bay. 
Soon afterward the forts in the harbor fell. Though the 
city was not taken at the time, the port was closed so that 
Confederate ships could not use it to pass the blockade. 

In the first days of the new year (1865) the Federals made 
a combined land and naval attack on Fort Fisher, which 
guarded the city of Wilmington, North Carolina, and, 
rapturing it, compelled the evacuation of Wilmington. 


HOW THE UNION FORCES WON 355 

Charleston was the only port of importance remaining to 
the Confederates. 

Presidential Election of 1864. — In the election of 1864 
Lincoln was again the candidate of the Republicans for 
President, and General George B. McClellan was the candi¬ 
date of the Democrats. The contest began unfavorably 
for the reelection of Lincoln. The long and expensive war, 
and more especially the terrible sacrifice of life in Grant’s 
campaign in Virginia, caused many persons in the North 
to despair of success. They looked with favor upon the 
Democratic party, which desired to open peace negotiations 
with the South. But the great victories for the Union that 
occurred in the summer and autumn — Sherman’s at 
Atlanta, Farragut’s at Mobile, and Sheridan’s in the Shenan¬ 
doah Valley — caused a turning of the tide. In the wave 
of enthusiasm that followed the North determined to fight 
the war to a successful close. Lincoln was reelected by an 
overwhelming vote. 

The Confederacy Crumbling, 1865. — At the beginning of 
the year 1865 the Confederacy was crumbling to pieces. Its 
power had been so broken in the West by the ruin of Hood’s 
.army in Tennessee that little resistance could be made to the 
Union forces in that section. Lee’s army at Petersburg and 
small commands scattered over the South were now its 
only reliance; and Lee’s army was in peril. 

The opening of the Mississippi River had cut the Con¬ 
federacy in two. Sherman’s march to the sea had cut it 
•again so that only the Carolinas and a portion of Virginia 
•could furnish supplies to Lee’s army. Grant and Sherman 
were ready to cut his last props from under Lee. 

Federal Plan of Campaign. — The Union armies combined 
now numbered almost a million men. Their plan of cam¬ 
paign was for Grant to continue his flanking movements to 
get to the rear of Lee’s army, while Sherman marched from 
Savannah, through the Carolinas, to make a junction with 
‘Grant. Then the two were to overwhelm Lee if Grant’s 
forces had not already done so. 


356 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Desperate Condition of Lee’s Army. — Lee had been made 
commander-in-chief of all the Confederate forces. He 
placed Johnston in command in the Carolinas, with instruc¬ 
tions to collect as many troops as possible to oppose Sher¬ 
man. The condition of Lee’s army was desperate in the 
extreme. As he himself said, the struggle was “to keep 
the army fed and clothed.” Poorly clad, worse fed, and 
often without shoes, the veterans endured the snow and 
sleet and rains of winter. “Cold and hunger struck them 
down in the trenches.” The “scant battalions grew smaller 
and smaller; the lines to be guarded longer and longer.” 

Lee knew that it would be only a short time before Grant’s 
great army would be extended so far around him as to seize 
his only remaining railroad, not only taking away all chances 
of his getting supplies, but cutting off the only route for his 
retreat. He wished, therefore, to abandon Richmond and 
Petersburg, unite with Johnston’s forces, defeat Sherman, 

and then defeat Grant. But 
the winter rains had made the 
roads so bad that Lee’s army 
horses, enfeebled from want of 
forage, could not pull the can¬ 
non and wagons over them. 
So he had to wait. 

Sherman’s March through 
the Carolinas. — Sherman did 
not tarry in Savannah. Early 
in February, 1865, his army 
crossed the Savannah River 
and began its march through 
Wade Hampton South Carolina. Only small 

bodies of cavalry under 
Generals Wade Hampton and Joseph Wheeler opposed it. 
The army marked its route by the destruction of property 
and laid Columbia, the capital of the state, in ashes. 

Since Charleston could no longer be held with a Federal 
army in the rear, the garrison evacuated the city and re- 



HOW THE UNION FORCES WON 


357 


treated into North Carolina. Early in March Sherman 
entered that state. Johnston, who was in North Carolina 
endeavoring to collect enough troops to delay Sherman 
until Lee’s army could join his own, could not stop the ad¬ 
vance of the overwhelming Federal force. 

Sherman marched to Goldsboro, where he was only one 
hundred and fifty miles from Grant’s army before Peters¬ 
burg. The Federal army of the West, whose operations 
had begun four years previously high up the ’Mississippi 
Valley, had, after fighting many bloody battles, marched 
through the heart of the Confederacy. It now stood ready 
to join the Eastern army in the operations against Lee. 

The Confederate Line Broken. — Lee, forced to postpone 
his withdrawal from Petersburg until more favorable weather, 
assaulted the Federal intrench- 
ments, late in March, with the 
hope of delaying the seizure of 
his railroad. General John B. 

Gordon led the assault. A fort 
in the Federal lines was taken, 
but the Confederates, unable to 
hold the position under a wither¬ 
ing fire, retreated to their own 
lines after suffering heavy losses. 

Grant saw no need, with his 
army so much larger than 
Lee’s, of waiting for Sherman, 
and thus giving Lee a chance 
to escape. He threw a force 
forward to seize Lee’s railroad. 



John B. Gordon 


The necessity of sending 


troops to meet this movement so weakened Lee’s line that 
in many places in his intrenchments there was only one 
soldier for every seven yards. Grant’s opportunity had 
now come, and he grasped it. On April 2 a great mass of 
Federal troops, thrown against a weak place in the Con¬ 
federate line, broke through. To save his army from being 
cut off, Lee began his retreat that night. Not only was 


358 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Petersburg evacuated, but also Richmond, the capital of 
the Confederacy, which he had so long and so ably defended. 
An accidental fire destroyed nearly a third of Richmond. 

Lee Surrenders at Appomattox. — In his retreat Lee’s 
purpose was still to make a junction with Johnston in North 
Carolina. The Federals followed in hot pursuit, pressing 
closely upon the rear and hanging upon the flanks of the 
weary, ragged, hungry little army, whose ranks, harassed 
by the pursuers and engaged every day in skirmishes, 
rapidly dwindled. One of the Federal columns, hurrying 
along the flank, pushed ahead, and near Appomattox Court 
House massed so deeply across the line of retreat that 
the Confederates could not break through. The Army 
of Northern Virginia had been reduced to about twenty- 
eight thousand, many of whom were too weak from hunger 
and exposure to lift a musket to the shoulder. Hemmed in 
between the two wings of the Union army, each one larger 
than his entire force, Lee submitted to the inevitable, and 
on April 9, 1865, surrendered. 

Grant’s Generous Terms. — The terms of surrender 
offered by Grant were generous. He paroled the officers 
and men, and allowed them to go home, having first fed them 
from the supplies of his own army. He would not allow 
his troops to celebrate the victory, for he did not wish them 
to wound the feelings of the valiant men, once their foes, 
but now their countrymen. 

End of the Confederacy. — After the surrender of Lee 
there was no more hope for the Confederacy. Two weeks 
later General Johnston surrendered to General Sherman 
near Durham, North Carolina, and in a few more weeks 
the last Confederate force had surrendered. Jefferson 
Davis, president of the Confederate States, was captured 
in Georgia and was imprisoned in Fortress Monroe. He 
repeatedly asked that he be tried on whatever charge might 
be brought against him; but after having been kept a 
prisoner for nearly two years, he was released without 
a trial. 


HOW THE UNION FORCES WON 


359 


Assassination of Lincoln. — The joy at the North over 
the surrender of Lee was checked by a horror that shocked 
the whole country, South as well as North. Abraham 
Lincoln was shot at a night performance in a theater at 
Washington by an actor who, sympathizing with the falling 
Confederacy, thought his deed would avenge the South. 
Lincoln died the next day, April 15, 1865. 

Abraham Lincoln was taken away at a critical time 
when he could ill be spared. The same master mind 
that had guided the country through the war was needed 
to bring the sections into harmony. In this misguided 
zeal for Southern interests, the assassin had slain the 
South’s most powerful friend. 

Cost of the War in Men. — The War of Secession had 
ended, but only after a great cost in men and money. The 
enlistments in the Union armies from first to last were more 
than two and three quarter millions. About three hundred 
and sixty thousand Union soldiers were killed in battle, or 
died of wounds or disease while serving in the army. On 
account of its smaller population the Confederacy was 
never able to bring into the field armies to match in size 
those of the Union; but it is probable that the total number 
of enlistments in the Confederate armies was nearly a mil¬ 
lion. The deaths in the Confederate army are supposed to 
have equaled those in the Union army; hence the whole 
number of lives lost on account of the war was nearly three 
quarters of a million. The number of persons crippled or 
maimed for life probably reached four hundred thousand. 
No estimate has ever been made of the number receiving 
wounds that caused no permanent injury. 

How Money for the War was Raised. — The war cost 
the country, North and South, about eight billion dollars. 
To raise the revenues for carrying on the war, the United 
States government borrowed money on bonds, increased 
the tariff tax, and established an internal revenue system. 
This system taxed not only luxuries, such as whiskey and 
tobacco, but it taxed the clothing one wore, the food he 



360 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

ate, the property he owned, bought, or sold; it taxed every 
profession, every business, every corporation — in short, 
it taxed almost everything. 

The demand for so much money soon exhausted all the 
gold and silver in the country, and the government issued 
paper money — notes which from their color were called 
greenbacks. To make these notes circulate as money, 
the government declared them ‘‘legal tender”—that is, 
good for the payment of debts. So much paper money was 
issued that it steadily decreased in value until a dollar in 
greenbacks was worth only forty-three cents in gold. The 
return of peace caused more confidence in the government, 
and the value of this money began to rise; but the green¬ 
backs were not worth as much as gold until the government 
showed its ability to redeem them in coin, dollar for dollar. 

The Union Army Disbanded. — Soon after the war closed, 
the work of disbanding the United States army began. 
The army then consisted of more than a million soldiers. 
In a very short time all the troops had been mustered out of 
the service except about fifty thousand that were retained 
for preserving order throughout the country. The soldier 
of the Union, having performed the task required of him 
on the field of battle, took up again his peaceful pursuits. 

What the War Settled. — Though war never did, and 
never can determine which view of a controversy is right, 
yet it can decide that the view held by the victor shall 
prevail. First and foremost the result of the war made the 
Union supreme. There came out of the terrible conflict 
an “indestructible union of indestructible states.” Seces¬ 
sion perished by the sword. 

The war put an end to slavery — an institution which, 
though existing at first in both North and South, had come 
by reason of climate to be confined to the latter section. 
At the beginning, few would have believed that the war 
would result in the abolition of slavery. At the present 
day there are few, even in the South, who would deny that 
its destruction was a benefit. 


HOW THE UNION FORCES WON 


361 


The sections at length came to a better understanding 
of each other. Mutual respect took the place of mutual 
prejudice. The Union became greater and nobler because 
the people became truly one people. The men who died on 
the battlefield, whether they wore the blue or whether they 
wore the gray, did not die in vain. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Contrast the forces in the Army of the Potomac and the Army 
of Northern Virginia at the beginning of 1863. Tell of the battle of 
Chancellorsville. What did the victory cost the South? 

2. What was General Lee’s purpose in advancing into Pennsylvania? 
Picture the Federal army on Cemetery Hill. The Confederate army 
on Seminary Ridge. Can both Northerners and Southerners be 
proud of their armies at Gettysburg? 

3. What was the plan of Grant’s second campaign for opening the 
Mississippi for the Federals? Describe the siege of Vicksburg. Why 
did the Confederate army feel so keenly its loss in this campaign? 

4. Why did the Confederates fail to hold their positions in eastern 
Tennessee? What generals were active in the battles around Chatta¬ 
nooga? What was the result of the Chattanooga campaign? At the 
end of 1863 which side had the advantage? 

5. What change was made in the command of the Federal forces 
in 1864? What problems confronted the Southern armies? State 
definitely the plan of the Federals for 1864. Describe the way General 
Lee kept General Grant at bay in Virginia. What results came from 
General Grant’s “hammering process”? Why did General Grant 
decide to lay siege to Petersburg? 

6. What were the object and the outcome of General Early’s ad¬ 
vance to Washington? Why did General Sheridan make a barren 
waste of the Shenandoah Valley? What did this mean to the Con¬ 
federacy? Describe the siege of Petersburg. 

7. Contrast the forces used by the Confederacy with those used 
by the Union in the Georgia campaign. Describe General Johnston’s 
policy in Northern Georgia while on his retreat to Atlanta. What 
cavalry leader of the Confederacy was a “thorn in the flesh” to General 
Sherman in this campaign? 

8. What general succeeded Johnston in Georgia? What was his 
policy? How did the Federals get possession of Atlanta? What was 
the object of General Hood’s next move? Describe General Sherman’s 
“March to the Sea.” What was the object of the destruction ordered 
by General Sherman? What had General Hood’s army suffered 
before it went into winter quarters in 1864? 


362 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

9. How did the Federals tighten the blockade? What nonpolitical 
events helped to decide the presidential election of 1864? Who were 
the candidates? 

10. What was the condition of the Confederacy at the beginning 
of 1865? What was the Federal plan of campaign? What was the 
condition of General Lee’s army? What were his plans? Trace and 
describe Sherman’s march through the Carolinas. What was Lee’s 
purpose in his retreat from Petersburg? Describe the retreat. Under 
what circumstances did General Lee surrender? How did General 
Grant treat his brave countrymen? What were the closing events of 
the war? 

11. What did the South lose by Lincoln's death? What did the 
Union lose? 

12. What did the war cost in lives? In money? In property? 
Did any leader on either side lose his reputation as a man? As a soldier? 
As a leader? Was there a “Benedict Arnold” on either side in the 
war? How did the United States government raise money for carry¬ 
ing on the war? What became of the large Federal army? 

Project Exercises 

1. Find on the map all the places mentioned in this chapter. 

2. Do you think the Confederacy had a chance to win the war after 
1863? Give reasons for your opinion. 

3. Recount the history of General Grant (see biography in the 
Appendix). 

4. Compare the careers of General Joseph E. Johnston and General 
McClellan. 

5. What became the common fate of paper money issued by both 
the United States and the Confederacy? (See pages 360 and 364.) 

Important Dates. 

1863. Battle of Gettysburg. 

1863. Fall of Vicksburg. 

1863. Battles of Chattanooga. 

1864. Grant’s Campaign against Richmond. 

1864. Capture of Atlanta. 

1865. Surrender of Lee. 

1865. Assassination of Lincoln. 


CHAPTER XXXII 

LIFE IN THE CONFEDERACY 1 

War Demands Sacrifice. — In war the internal condition 
of a country has an important bearing upon the outcome. 
The people at home have to arm, clothe, and feed the 
soldiers and nurse them when sick or wounded; hence, 
“the success of a war depends largely upon men and women 
who never go near the firing line.” When war is waged on 
a large scale and is extended over a long period of years the 
duty of supporting millions of men, who otherwise would be 
supporting themselves, involves great sacrifices by the people, 
especially when the resources of a country are limited. 

Effect of the Blockade. — The South could not have 
continued the war so long if it had not been for the willing¬ 
ness of her people to make sacrifices. Indeed, no correct 
idea of how the war was brought to a close can be obtained 
without a knowledge of the condition to which the South 
was reduced. The North, by its superior strength, starved 
out the Confederacy as well as battered away its armies. 
The South was shut off from the rest of the world by Fed¬ 
eral armies stretching along its frontiers and Federal fleets 
blockading its coast. Its people, growing cotton and tobacco, 
had always depended largely on the North and Europe for the 
necessaries of life, and deprived of these sources of supply, 
their power to carry on the great war was weakened. Noth¬ 
ing showed the remarkable resources of the Union more than 
the ability with which it equipped, in so short a time, the 
large navy required to blockade the long southern seacoast. 

It is true that vessels managed to slip through the block¬ 
ade, but the trade they were able to carry on between the 
outside world and the Confederacy was never sufficient to 

1 Much of the material for this chapter was found in Dodge’s Do* 
mestic Economy in the Confederacy , in Vol. LVIII, Atlantic Monthly. 

363 


364 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


relieve the wants of the South. The men and vessels 
engaged in this traffic were known as blockade runners. 
The vessels were built low to the water and painted a dull 
gray color so that they were almost invisible at night, 
the time always selected for an attempt to run the blockade. 
The blockade runners had exciting experiences. Many were 
captured. 

Enormous Prices. — The necessaries of life soon became 
so scarce that prices rose enormously. Whatever gold there 
was in the South when the war began, quickly went out of 
the country in the purchase of the cargoes of the blockade 
runners, and no more gold could come 
in, because the blockade prevented the 
sending of cotton and other southern 
products abroad for sale. 

Confederate Paper Money. — The 
only currency was paper money issued 
by the Confederate government and by 
states and cities. The value of this 
money, which depended solely on faith 
in the ability of the government to 
redeem it some day in gold or silver, 
steadily went down as misfortunes be¬ 
fell the Confederate arms. As the 
paper money became of less value, 
prices rose; and as prices rose, more 
A Southern Planter paper money was issued. The South 
became so flooded with this cheap 
money that by 1864 sixty dollars in Confederate money 
were worth only one dollar in gold. 

In that year “flour was quoted at two hundred and fifty 
dollars per barrel in Confederate money; meal, fifty dollars; 
corn, forty dollars, and oats, twenty-five dollars per bushel; 
beans, fifty dollars, and black-eyed peas, forty-five dollars 
per bushel; brown sugar,' ten dollars, coffee, twelve dollars, 
and tea, thirty-five dollars per pound.” If a lady was 
able to persuade a blockade runner to accept Confederate 




LIFE IN THE CONFEDERACY 365 

money for his precious wares, here are some of the prices 
she had to pay: French merino or mohair dress, eight 
hundred to one thousand dollars; cloak of fine cloth, one 
thousand to fifteen hundred dollars; Balmoral boots, two 
hundred and fifty dollars per pair; French gloves, one 
hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and fifty dollars 
per pair. 

The War the one Engrossing Matter. — Business be¬ 
came so dull that it was rare even in large towns for stores 
to be kqpt open regularly. If a chance purchaser came by, 
the merchant would open his store to make the sale, and 
then closing it immediately would stroll off to discuss with 
his neighbors the progress of the war. Nor could the cus¬ 
tomer be certain in advance that he should succeed in making 
the purchase. If he filled his pockets with some hundreds 
of dollars to buy a sack of salt, a few bushels of corn, and 
a few pounds of bacon, he might find on reaching the store 
that prices had doubled, or perhaps that the stock had been 
sold, or else that some recent reverse to the army had de¬ 
termined the merchant not to accept Confederate money 
at all. Before Lee surrendered, Confederate money had 
become practically worthless. 4 

Scarcity of Salt. — From the first, salt was most precious, 
because it was needed for the curing of meat. It became 
so scarce that the earthen floors of smoke houses, where salt 
from the bacon had dripped for years, were dug up and 
boiled in order to separate the salt from the earth. Stations 
were erected on the coast for obtaining salt from sea-water, 
but the blockading fleets made this method unsafe and un¬ 
certain. Wood ashes were sometimes used as a substitute 
in curing meat, but with little success. Salt increased in 
value to such an extent that it was used in some cases instead 
of money. 

Lack of Meat. — As the territory in possession of the 
Confederates decreased, the supply of meat became less and 
less. Finally, it was almost impossible to obtain enough 
bacon to keep the soldiers alive. A story is told of General 


366 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Lee that he once invited some officers to dine in his tent 
when the only meat served was a piece of fat bacon, or 
4 ‘ middling/’ so small that the guests with delicacy declined 
to partake of it. The servant thereupon apologized for the 
smallness of the piece by explaining that it had been bor¬ 
rowed for the occasion. 

Substitutes for Coffee and Tea. — Many were the substi¬ 
tutes that necessity forced upon the people of the South. 
Rye, okra, corn, and bran were the most popular substitutes 



A View of Richmond 
F rom an old print 


for coffee. Cotton seed was also used, and it was declared 
with enthusiasm that coffee made from the seed of sea- 
island cotton could not be told from the best Java, and 
that made from the upland cotton was exactly like Rio. 
Raspberry leaves, sassafras root, and com fodder were 
substitutes for tea. Sorghum took the place of sugar. 
Another story told of General Lee is illustrative of the 
scarcity of table delicacies. On one occasion, when he was 
the guest of a lady in Richmond, he was offered a cup of 
tea. His hostess, not wishing him to know that it was all 
she had, filled another cup with water from the James 









LIFE IN THE CONFEDERACY 367 

River, colored by rain and mud until it looked like tea, 
and sipped it without a grimace. 

Scarcity of Iron and Other Metal. — Iron was much 
needed for war purposes, and so little of it was to be had in 
the South that church bells and plantation bells were melted 
and cast into cannon. Use was found for all stray pieces 
of metal. Implements for the farm and utensils for the 
house, when worn out, could not be replaced, so they were 
patched and repatched time and again. Old nails were 
carefully saved, and blacksmiths were kept busy making 
clumsy needles and pins and scissors. 

Heroism of the Women. — At the beginning of the war, 
when the cause of the Confederacy seemed bright, women 
converted their silk dresses into banners. As reverses came, 
they cheerfully gave up everything for the army. Their 
homes and wardrobes were stripped. Woolen dresses and 
shawls were made into soldiers’ shirts; carpets were made 
into blankets; curtains, sheets, and other linep articles were 
made into lint and bandages for the wounded. From morn¬ 
ing till night their gentle fingers knitted socks, shirts, and 
gloves, to keep the cold from the men as they lay in the 
trenches. As medicines were declared contraband of war 
by the Federal government, the soldier lying in the hospital 
suffered not only from lack of proper food, but also from lack 
of medicine. The women, however, did all in their power 
to relieve his pain or soothe his last hours. 

Dress of the Women. — Calico was a luxury, for it cost 
ten dollars a yard, and was as much valued as silk or cash- 
mere in ordinary times. The usual dress was made of home- 
spun, and the hum of the spinning wheel and the whir of 
the loom, so familiar in colonial days, again met the ear in 
almost every household. Buttons were made of persimmon 
seeds with holes pierced for eyes. Women plaited their 
own hats from straw or the palmetto leaf, and decorated 
them with feathers from the barnyard fowls. One mourning 
dress would often be used by an entire community. It 
would go from house to house as death entered one door 


368 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATED 

after another. And death came with appalling frequency 
when almost every day brought a battle or a skirmish. 

Scarcity of Leather. — Leather was so hard to get that 
shoes were made of wood. Generally the entire shoe was 

made of this material, 
but sometimes carriage 
curtains, buggy tops, 
saddle cloths, or any- 
thing bearing a resem¬ 
blance to leather would 
be made into uppers 
and attached to wood¬ 
en soles. In order to 
have these soles as thin 
as possible and yet 
strong enough, light 
irons, similar to horse¬ 
shoes, were nailed upon 
them. The footstep would make a resounding noise and 
the irons would often cut into the floors now bare of carpet. 
Ladies patched their shoes with remnants of silk dresses 
that in better days it had been their good fortune to 
possess. Old morocco pocketbooks were made into shoes 
for children. 

Newspapers. — With few exceptions, newspapers were 
printed on half sheets. The paper was rough, the type old, 
and the ink bad, yet the papers were eagerly read in the 
home of the planter in the lowlands and in the cabin of the 
humble dweller on the mountain side; for every household 
had a husband, a father, or a son in the army. Anxious 
as all were for news of the war, the newspapers often could 
give very little. Sometimes the account of a great battle 
would be told in half a column, and a skirmish, in which 
a score or more of brave men had given up their lives, would 
be mentioned in a single sentence. 

Difficulties of Letter Writing. — Such writing paper as 
was manufactured was of the very coarsest kind, and was 



A Pair of Wooden-soled Shoes 


Worn by a Confederate Soldier in the latter 
part of the war 



LIFE IN THE CONFEDERACY 369 

so expensive that it was seldom purchased. The home was 
ransacked for every scrap of paper that could be used in 
letter writing, and even pages of old account books, often 
already written on one side, and flyleaves of printed volumes 
were used for this purpose. Envelopes were made of wall 
paper and the pictured leaves of old books, the white sides 
turned out. Glue was obtained from the gum of peach 
trees. Poke berries, oak balls, and green persimmons 
furnished the ink. 

Actual Distress of the People. —Families were reduced to 
the greatest poverty, many living solely on sorghum and corn- 
bread or sweet potatoes, yet there was always a place at the 
table for the passing Confederate soldier, such was the 
devotion to the cause for which all were willing, to suffer. 
Conditions grew worse as the Federal army seized more and 
more Confederate territory. The inhabitants of the cap¬ 
tured territory would flee to such sections as remained under 
Confederate control. They were known as “refugees,” 
and had to be provided for from the rapidly diminishing 
resources of those with whom they sought shelter. To 
prevent waste of food, it became necessary to punish 
children when they took more on their plates than they 
could eat. Many were the acts of heroism. Instances were 
known where a sick person, having received some delicacy, 
would send it to a neighbor who was also sick, and thence 
it would pass from invalid to invalid until it finally came 
back to the person who had started it on its round. 

Faithfulness of the Slave. — With the Southern soldiers 
at the front, the slave worked the crop by day, and guarded 
the women and children by night; or he followed his master 
into the army, where he cared for the soldier’s wants, re¬ 
joiced in his victories, and with sorrowing heart brought back 
to the old homestead the warrior’s lifeless body. The 
slave’s faithfulness to his master and to his master’s family 
causes still the admiration of the world. 

The South Prostrated. — The North drew its armies 
from a large population and secured, besides, through its 


370 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

•abundant wealth, many foreigners to serve as soldiers. 
With its territory free from the pressure of invading armies, 
with its ports open to the world, and with a vast majority 
of its men at home and attending to business, the North 
prospered all the while. To many in the North the war 
was only something to read about in the newspapers. 

The Confederacy, however, needed all its men for soldiers, 
and as a consequence, practically every man of the South 
served in the army. Every battle, except Gettysburg, was 
fought on southern soil. Throughout the South fertile 
fields and pleasant villages were ruined, and homes were 
destroyed by great armies moving to and fro. Railroads 
were tom up. Cotton, the chief staple of the South, was 
seized by the Federals, or burned by the Confederates to 
keep it from being taken. Two billion dollars invested 
in slaves were swept away, and the wealth placed in Con¬ 
federate bonds was lost forever. The Confederacy died 
of exhaustion. 


Topics and Questions 

1. Why does war demand sacrifice? What effects did the Federal 
blockade have upon the South? What was the object of the blockade 
runners? What was often their fate? Describe the effect of paper 
money upon prices in the South. What risks did a blockade runner 
take on his sales? 

2. Why was the scarcity of salt such a vital matter in the South? 
How was salt provided? How was metal provided? What food was 
flavored with Southern patriotism until it was palatable? 

3. Tell of the sacrifices made by the Southern women to secure 
clothes and bandages for the army. How were shoes provided for men, 
women, and children? 

4. How did the Confederate newspaper look and how was it wel¬ 
comed? How did a Southern woman get together materials for a 
letter? Explain the exhaustion of which the Confederacy died. 

Project Exercise 

Compare the sufferings and deprivations of the whole South — 
men, women, and soldiers — with those of the men who first settled 
Virginia, of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, and of the Continental soldiers 
at Valley Forge. Why were each and all willing to endure such misery? 


CHAPTER XXXIII 
RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION 

Johnson becomes President. — On April 15, 1865, a 
few hours after the death of Lincoln, Andrew Johnson of 
Tennessee, the Vice President, took the oath of office as 
President. 

The Thirteenth Amendment. — As President Lincoln’s 
Emancipation Proclamation was a war measure and affected 
only those sections of the country which were at the time 
in arms against the United States (see page 342), Congress 
proposed an amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting 
slavery anywhere in the United States or in any place sub¬ 
ject to the jurisdiction of the United States. This, the 
Thirteenth Amendment, was ratified in 1865 by the neces¬ 
sary number of states, and became a part of the Consti¬ 
tution. 

The President’s Trying Position. — At the beginning of 
his administration, President Johnson was confronted 
with the grave question of restoring to their former places 
in the Union the states so lately engaged in war with the 
United States. The President occupied a very trying posi¬ 
tion. He had taken the place of a man who was greatly 
beloved by the North — a man who had brought the country 
safely through the war, and by whose advice the people 
would have been willing still to be guided. Johnson, who 
had much ability, rugged honesty and firm character, was 
himself a Southern man, and moreover, he had been a 
Democrat until his feeling against secession had led him 
to join with the Republicans. So he could not secure the 
complete confidence of the North; in fact, almost from the 
first his official acts were distrusted by many through fear 
that sympathy with his own people might cause him to be 
too lenient with the South. 


371 


372 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Johnson Adopts Lincoln’s Plan of Reconstruction. — 

Lincoln had believed that civil government should be 
restored in the South as soon as armed resistance to the 
United States had been suppressed, and that it was the 
duty of the President to reconstruct the state governments. 
As early as 1863 he had issued a proclamation to the effect 
that a government organized in any state of the Confederacy, 
by voters who would take an oath to support the Consti¬ 
tution and laws of the United States, would be recognized 
by him as the true government of the state. The only 

condition was that the number 
of such voters must be at least 
one tenth of the total number 
of votes cast in the state at 
the election of i860. He ex¬ 
cluded from taking part in the 
formation of the new govern¬ 
ment all persons who had 
borne a leading part in aid of 
the Confederacy, and all 
persons who had left the civil 
or military service of the 
United States to join the 
Confederacy. 

While this regulation pre¬ 
vented a large number of white persons from voting, it did 
not require that negroes should be allowed to vote. Presi¬ 
dent Lincoln knew that a race just emerging from bondage 
was not capable of voting intelligently. Governments had 
been organized in a few of the Southern states in accordance 
with the proclamation, and Lincoln had recognized them. If 
he had lived, he would probably have succeeded in carrying 
out his policy of reconstruction. 

Johnson held very nearly to Lincoln’s views regarding 
reconstruction, and he followed his predecessor’s plan. 
The state governments in the South which Lincoln had 
recognized, he allowed to stand. For the other Southern 



Andrew Johnson 


RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION 


373 


states he appointed provisional 1 governors, who began 
immediately to organize new state governments. By the 
end of 1865 all the states lately forming the Confederacy 
had adopted new constitutions, had repealed or annulled 
the ordinances of secession, and had abolished slavery; 
all had elected their governors, legislators, representatives 
in Congress, and United States Senators. Nearly all had 
ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. The President had 
issued proclamations, declaring that hostilities had ceased 
and that civil government conforming to the laws of the 
United States had been restored to every part of the country. 
In carrying out his policy of reconstructing the Southern 
governments, Johnson had followed Lincoln in limiting the 
right to vote to white persons. 

The Freedman’s Bureau. — The slaves had always looked 
to their masters for direction, and when emancipation threw 
them on their own resources, many of them were unable to 
earn a living. Congress realized that it was the duty of the 
government, at least for a time, to take care of these millions 
of helpless people. Accordingly, what was called the Freed¬ 
man’s Bureau was established. 

Through the Bureau, lands in the South, seized by the 
United States government during the war, were leased on 
easy terms to the freedmen, as the late slaves were called. 
Food, clothing, and fuel were distributed among them. 
Schools were established and medical treatment was fur¬ 
nished. But the system intended for the good of the negroes 
worked only harm to them. Like children in their sim¬ 
plicity, many of them thought that something similar to the 
millennium had come. They saw no need of working if the 
government would support them, and they supposed that 
the government would support them forever. The belief 
became common among them that the government would 
give every freedman forty acres and a mule. They crowded 
around the offices of the Bureau; they idled away their 

1 Provisional: temporary. A provisional governor was to serve 
Until a regular governor was elected. 




374 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

time. Many who had been faithful slaves were fast becom¬ 
ing paupers and criminals. 

Vagrancy Laws. — To guard against the dangers thus 
threatened, the provisional governments in the South enacted 
vagrancy laws. A negro who would not work voluntarily 
was to be fined, and if he failed to pay the fine, he was to 
be hired out to the person who would pay his fine. These 
laws were no harsher than the vagrancy laws of some of 
the Northern states; but as they were aimed against the 
negroes, many persons in the North thought them merely 
an effort on the part of the Southern people to place the 
negro under another form of slavery. These persons further 
thought that the negroes of the South should be allowed 
to vote, so that, by having a voice in the government, they 
could protect themselves against oppressive laws. There 
was, moreover, an extreme class in the North who wished 
to give the negroes the ballot in order that the Republican 
party might be kept in power in the South; for it was well 
known that the negroes, if allowed to vote, would vote 
with the party that had freed them. 

Congress and the President Disagree. — For all these 
reasons Congress refused to recognize the governments 
which, under the direction of the President, the white 
people of the South had set up, and declared that 
no state of the late Confederacy should be readmitted 
into the Union until it had shown to the satisfaction of 
Congress that it was ready for readmission. Thus the 
President and Congress differed as to which branch of the 
Federal government should reconstruct the governments 
of the Southern states. This disagreement soon led to a 
bitter quarrel between the President and Congress. The 
President vetoed many of the reconstruction acts passed 
by Congress, but Congress usually made the acts laws by 
passing them over the veto (see page 172). 

Making the Negro a Citizen. — In 1866 Congress proposed 
another amendment to the Constitution. The Thirteenth 
Amendment had freed the negro, and the proposed amend- 


RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION 


375 


ment (the Fourteenth), when ratified by the necessary 
number of states—three fourths—would make him a citizen. 
It declared that “all persons born or naturalized in the United 
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens 
of the United States and of the state wherein they reside,’' 
and that all persons shall have “equal protection of the 
laws.” Section 2 of the amendment made it disadvantageous 
to a state, by reducing its representation in Congress, to 
refuse the negro the ballot. Section 3 prevented from hold¬ 
ing office a person who had, as an official, sworn to support 
the Federal Constitution and had afterward aided the Con¬ 
federacy, unless Congress by a two thirds vote of each 
House should remove the disability. 1 Tennessee promptly 
ratified the amendment and was thereupon (1866) readmitted 
into the Union. 

Congress Undertakes Reconstruction. — All other states 
of the late Confederacy rejected the Fourteenth Amend¬ 
ment, so Congress determined to take the work of recon¬ 
struction into its own hands and begin it all over again. 
By a law passed in 1867 the ten states were divided into five 
districts and placed under military rule. Each district 
was under a general of the army, who had a sufficient num¬ 
ber of soldiers to enforce his authority. He also had charge 
of organizing governments in the states of his district to 
take the place of those organized by the President. In¬ 
fluenced by extremists who wished to put the negro in control 
in the Southern states, the law provided that in the organ¬ 
ization of the new state governments, the right to vote should 
be given to practically every freedman of voting age, and 
should be taken away from white men who had held certain 
offices in the Federal and state governments and had subse¬ 
quently served the Confederacy. The law also provided 
that when a state constitution, satisfactory to Congress, 
had been adopted, and when the Fourteenth Amendment 

1 A proposed constitutional amendment is not sent to the President 
for approval, but is submitted directly to the states for ratification* 
hence Johnson had no opportunity to use the veto. 


376 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

had been ratified, military rule would be withdrawn and the 
state readmitted into the Union. 

Negroes in Control in the South. — Under this law the 
negroes voted, while very many whites were disfranchised. 
Constitutions were declared adopted in North Carolina, 
South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, 1 Louisiana, and Arkansas, 
and these states were readmitted into the Union in 1868. 
Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas refused to adopt new con¬ 
stitutions. Georgia adopted a constitution, but Congress 
objected to a law passed by the state which denied to the 
negro the right to hold office. Virginia, Mississippi, Texas, 
and Georgia were kept out of the Union for some time longer. 

Fourteenth Amendment. — In 1868 the Fourteenth 
Amendment was declared to be a part of the Constitution, 
having been ratified by the necessary number of states. 

President Johnson and Congress. — Meanwhile the quar¬ 
rel between the President and Congress had reached a crisis. 
One of the many Acts of Congress vetoed by the President 
was the Tenure-of-Office Act. This act forbade the Presi¬ 
dent to remove any official, even a cabinet officer, without 
the consent of the Senate, although it had been regarded 
from Washington’s time as the constitutional right of a 
President to remove an official whenever he thought proper. 
The purpose of the Tenure-of-Office Act was to tie President 
Johnson’s hands, and Congress passed it over his veto. 

One of the members of Johnson’s cabinet was Edwin M. 
Stanton, Secretary of War. The President and the Secre¬ 
tary did not work in harmony, because the latter was opposed 
to the President’s reconstruction policy. Stanton was 
asked by the President to resign, but he refused to do so. 
Then the President suspended him, but he was reinstated 
by Congress. Finally, believing the Tenure-of-Office Act 
unconstitutional, the President dismissed him from office. 
Stanton appealed to the House of Representatives, and that 

1 The returns from the election in Alabama showed that the con¬ 
stitution failed of adoption, but nevertheless Congress declared it 
adopted. 


RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION 377 

body by resolution impeached the President of “high crimes 
and misdemeanors.” 

Impeachment of the President. — After resolving to im¬ 
peach a President, the House of Representatives presents 
the charges to the Senate, which body, with the Chief Justice 
of the Supreme Court presiding, tries him. It requires a 
two thirds vote of the Senate to convict. If the President 
is convicted, he is removed from office (see Constitution, 
Article I, Section 3). The principal charge upon which 
President Johnson was tried was the violation of the Tenure- 
of-Office Act. The trial lasted nearly two months (1868). 
It resulted in the acquittal of the President. The number 
of Senators who voted to find the President guilty was one 
less than the two thirds necessary to convict. 

Grant Elected President. —Johnson had but a short time 
longer to serve as President, for in the election of 1868 
General Ulysses S. Grant, who had been nominated by the 
Republicans, was chosen to 
succeed him. 

The “Carpet-bag Govern¬ 
ments.’ ’ — The governments 
that Congress forced upon 
the South over the opposi¬ 
tion of President Johnson 
soon bore evil fruit. The 
South, just beginning to re¬ 
cover from the war, had now 
another trial before it. 

Years of misrule followed the Carpet-baggers 

giving Of the ballot to the p ermiss!oI1 o{ Dr. Walter L. Fleming 

negro. Selfish 'white men 

secured control of the poor freedmen, who, unused to 
governing, could only follow where others led. Adventurers 
from the North poured into the South. They were called 
“carpet-baggers,” because it was said that every one of them 
had brought from the North all he owned in a “carpet-bag,” 
or valise. The few white Southerners who joined with these 




378 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

adventurers in getting rich through misgovemment were 
generally known as ‘‘ scalawags. ’’ The public treasuries were 
robbed, and the states were burdened with enormous debts. 
Taxes were raised so high that people lost their property 
because they could not pay them. The friendly relations 
that had always existed between the races were destroyed. 
It was as dark an hour for the South as the war itself. The 
white people saw ruin for themselves and their states, and 
were powerless, for United States troops were used to uphold 
the “carpet-bag” governments. 

The Loyal League. — The negroes, guided by their white 
headers, formed an association known as the Loyal League, 
for the purpose of keeping the white race under foot. They 
committed murder, arson, and crimes of every kind. The 

white people could get no pro¬ 
tection from the courts, for judges 
and jurors were under the control 
of those who bred all the trouble. 
Organizations were therefore 
formed among the whites for self¬ 
protection. 

The Ku-Klux Klan. — The 

most famous of these organiza¬ 
tions was the Ku-Klux Klan. 
Its members were bound by an 
oath of secrecy, and did their 
work by night. By spreading 
terror among the negroes, they 
Permission of Dr. Walter L. Fleming hoped to keep enough of them 
from the polls on election day to 
enable the whites to regain control of the state governments. 
Some of the members of the Ku-Klux Klan resorted to 
extreme violence. The terrible condition of the South — 
robber governments, hatred between the white man and 
the negro, and constant lawlessness — could never have 
existed but for the measures employed by Congress m 
reconstructing the South. 



Ku-Klux Members 









































































RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION 


379 


The Fifteenth Amendment. — In 1870, an amendment 
to the Constitution, known as the Fifteenth, was adopted, 
to make the negro secure in his right to vote. The 
laws allowing them to vote had been only state laws, 
which could have been changed at any time. The Fifteenth 
Amendment prevents the ballot from being taken from the 
negro for the reason that he is a negro. It declares that 
'‘the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not 
be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state 
on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” 
The four states of the late Confederacy that had not already 
been restored to the Union — Virginia, Mississippi, Texas p 
and Georgia — were readmitted by 1870, and the recon¬ 
struction of the South was declared to be complete. 

Reelection of Grant. — For the presidential campaign 
of 1872, the Republicans renominated Grant. Some of the 
most eminent Republicans were dissatisfied with the policy 
of their party in forcing the “carpet-bag” governments 
upon the South. To them the name of Liberal Republicans 
was given. They nominated Horace Greeley of New York, 
for President. Their platform demanded that the ballot 
be restored to all the white people of the South, and that the 
United States troops stationed in the South for the purpose 
of upholding the “carpet-bag” governments, be withdrawn., 
The Democrats, having the same platform, endorsed the 
Liberal Republican ticket. The feeling of the North against 
the South, on account of the war, was still so strong that the 
Northern people had not yet come to realize the injustice 
of the Republican policy toward the South; hence, they 
reelected Grant. 

White People Regaining Control. — Nevertheless, the 
Southern states gradually worked from out the throes of 
reconstruction. Some of the states suffered longer than 
others. As the white people gradually had the right of vot¬ 
ing restored to them, they regained control of the govern¬ 
ment, first in the states where they were more numerous, 
and then in the others. By the end of Grant’s adminis- 


380 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

tration (1877) every state dtcept South Carolina, Florida, 
and Louisiana had been freed from “carpet-bag” rule. In 
many of the states the “carpet-bag” governments would 
have disappeared sooner had they not been supported 
by United States troops. 

Election of 1876. — In the election of 1876 the Repub¬ 
licans supported Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio for President, 
and the Democrats supported Samuel J. Tilden of New 
York. For some time the Republican party, on account of 
its policy toward the South and on account of the corruption 
that had appeared in its administration of the Federal 
government (see page 412), had been losing ground. In the 
congressional elections two years previously the Democrats 
had carried the House by a large majority, and they had 
recovered control of most of the Southern states. The 
outlook was favorable, therefore, for the election of Tilden, 
On the next morning after the election it was believed that the 
Democrats had been successful; Republican newspapers 
conceded the defeat of their party. 

The Election in Dispute. — But soon there arose a dispu^. 
about the result in certain states. In South Carolina, 
Florida, and Louisiana, each party claimed to have carried 
the state. In each of these states there was a “returning 
board,” whose duty it was to canvass the votes and declare 
the result. The members of the “returning boards” had 
almost unlimited power; they were the sole judges of the 
legality of the votes cast, and could throw out enough 
ballots to change the vote of the state. South Carolina, 
Florida, and Louisiana were still under control of the “carpet¬ 
bag” governments, and though the returns in each case 
gave the Democrats a majority, the “returning board,” 
declaring that many of the Democratic votes were fraudulent, 
threw them out and gave certificates of election to the 
Republican electors. The Democrats protested that they 
had been defrauded, and in each state two sets of electors 
met and forwarded their votes to Congress. One electoral 
vote of Oregon was also disputed. 


RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION 381 

Hayes Declared Elected. — The excitement throughout 
the country was intense. The number of electoral votes 
necessary for election was one hundred and eighty-five 
and Tilden had received one hundred and eighty-fou T 
undisputed votes. In order 
for Hayes to be elected, he 
must be given every one of 
the votes in dispute. The 
Constitution provides that 
the electoral vote shall be 
counted in the presence of 
the two houses of Congress. 

It was hardly to be hoped 
that Congress would reach a 
conclusion about the disputed 
votes, since the Democrats 
controlled the House and the 
Republicans the Senate. Rutherford B. Hayes 
Finally, Congress submitted 

the question of the disputed votes to a commission, 
each house agreeing to abide by its decision unless both 
houses voted to overrule it. The commission was composed 
of five members of the House, five members of the Senate, 
and five justices of the Supreme Court. Eight of the com¬ 
mission were Republicans and seven Democrats . 1 By a 
strict party vote — eight to seven — the commission de¬ 
cided that Hayes was entitled to every one of the disputed 
votes. As both houses would not vote to overrule the 
decision, Congress then declared that Hayes was elected. 

1 It was the intention of Congress that the commission should be 
composed of seven Democrats and seven Republicans, and that the 
fifteenth member should be David Davis, a justice of the Supreme Court 
and an independent in politics. But at the critical time Justice Davis 
was elected United States Senator from Illinois; the Act required that 
five members of the commission should be justices of the Supreme 
Court, and in that body there were only two Democrats, so that the 
place on the commission intended for an Independent was necessarily 
filled by a Republican. 



582 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

End of “ Carpet-bag ” Rule. — One of the first matters 
to which Hayes gave his attention, after his inauguration as 
President in 1877, was the political conditions in South 
Carolina and Louisiana. In every Southern state, except 
South Carolina and Louisiana, the whites had now recovered 
control of the government; in each of these states there were 
two governments, one white and the other “carpet-bag,” 
both claiming to have been legally elected. 1 The “carpet¬ 
bag,” or Republican governments, were supported by United 
States troops. President Hayes, although a Republican, 
did not approve of the policy of forcing a “carpet-bag” 
government upon a state. Unwilling that United States 
soldiers should be used to prevent the people of a state from 
deciding for themselves which government they would have, 
he withdrew the troops, and the Republican governments 
in South Carolina and Louisiana fell to pieces. The political 
effect of the reconstruction measures was that the South 
became solidly Democratic. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Why was the Thirteenth Amendment adopted? What was the 
greatest problem confronting the country when Johnson became Presi¬ 
dent? Why was President Johnson's position trying? What had 
President Lincoln already done toward reorganizing the Southern 
states? Why did President Johnson appoint provisional governors? 
What did he do about negro suffrage? Describe the condition of the 
free negroes, contrasting it with their condition under slavery. What 
was the object of the vagrancy laws? Why did the North fear them? 
Why did the Republicans wish to give the negro the ballot? 

2. What test was put upon the Southern states when they applied 
lor “readmission”? Why could not the President stop this change 
of plan in reconstruction? Quote the Fourteenth Amendment. What 
state availed itself of this offer of Congress? What was the plan of 
reconstruction advocated by Congress? Describe the military rule for 
the South. How did the negroes gain control in the South? Which 
states were readmitted in 1868? Which ones were still unreconstructed? 

1 In Florida, where the government had also been in dispute as the 
result of the election of 1876, the state supreme court, the majority of 
whose members were Republican, had already decided that the Demo¬ 
cratic government was the legal one. 


RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION 


383 

3. How and when was the Fourteenth Amendment adopted? 

4. What new question showed the lack of agreement between 
President Johnson and Congress? What was the object of the Tenure- 
of-Office Act? Tell the story of the impeachment of Johnson. 

5. Who was elected President in 1868? Describe “carpet-baggers” 
and “scalawags” and their work in the South. Describe the Loyal 
League and the Ku-Klux Klan. Who was responsible for the un¬ 
fortunate condition existing in the South? Up to this time how had 
the Constitution of the United States left the matter of suffrage? 
By the Fifteenth Amendment, how was the power of the states abridged 
in regard to granting suffrage? What were the last states to be re- 
constructed? 

6. State the political platform of the Liberal Republicans in the 
election of 1862. Who was their candidate for President? What 
party joined them in this campaign? Who won? 

7. How did “carpet-bag” rule gradually disappear? Tell the story 
of the election of 1876. How did President Hayes put an end to 4 * carpet¬ 
bag” rule? Define the “Solid South.” 


Project Exercise 

Is there a provision in the Constitution providing for an electoral 
commission such as was formed as a result of the election of 1876? 


Important Dates: 

1868. Impeachment of President Johnson. 

1877. End of “carpet-bag” government in the South. 


CHAPTER XXXIV 

FOREIGN RELATIONS: FINANCIAL AFFAIRS 

Attempt of Napoleon III upon Mexico. — While the War 
of Secession was in progress, Napoleon III, emperor of the 
French, attempted to establish an empire in Mexico that 
should be controlled by France. He knew that the United 
States would object, because his project was a violation of 
the Monroe Doctrine (see page 253); but he thought that 
the United States, engaged in a terrible war, would not be 
able to prevent him. Despite protests from the United 
States, French troops overthrew the republican government 
and took possession of Mexico. 

The Monroe Doctrine Enforced. — Archduke Maximilian, 
a nephew of the emperor of Austria, was proclaimed em¬ 
peror of Mexico. Maximilian found little support from the 
Mexicans, but by the aid of French troops he was able to rule 
over much of the territory. As soon as the War of Secession 
ended in the United States, the Federal government felt 
able to enforce its protest against this usurpation. United 
States troops were massed on the Texas frontier, and Napo¬ 
leon was notified that he must withdraw his soldiers from 
Mexico. Napoleon was wise enough to avoid a war with 
the United States, and the last of his troops had left by 
1867. Maximilian undertook to continue the empire without 
the aid of the French; but he was taken prisoner by Mexi¬ 
cans favoring a republic and was shot. The republic of 
Mexico was then reestablished. 

Purchase of Alaska. — In the same year that the French 
troops were withdrawn from Mexico (1867), Russian power 
disappeared from America. The United States purchased 
Russian America for seven million two hundred thousand 

384 


FOREIGN RELATIONS: FINANCIAL AFFAIRS 385 

dollars. The name of the territory, which is as large in 
area as the original thirteen states, was changed to Alaska. 
Though it was then known that Alaska was rich in furs, 
skins, fish, and lumber, there were many who thought that 
the purchase of that bleak country was a mistake. They 
said that the United States had bought only an immense 
area of “rocks and ice.” Yet, although the development of 
the territory has just begun, the financial advantage of pur¬ 
chasing it has become clear to everybody. The resources 
of Alaska, especially gold which has since been discovered 
in large quantities, have already repaid the purchase price 
many times over. 

The “Alabama” Claims. — In 1871 the United States and 
Great Britain agreed upon a treaty, known as the Treaty 
of Washington, which provided for a settlement of all mat¬ 
ters of dispute between the two countries. The most 
important question concerned the damages arising from the 
injury done to the commerce of the United States, during 
the War of Secession, by Confederate cruisers fitted out in 
British ports. The United States had always asserted that 
it was the duty of Great Britain as a neutral nation to pre¬ 
vent the sailing of these cruisers from her waters, and since 
1863 had been endeavoring to get Great Britain to pay 
for the damages done to American commerce in consequence 
of her neglect. Because the most famous of the cruisers 
fitted out in British ports was the Alabama (see page 341), 
the claims of the United States came to be called the Ala¬ 
bama Claims. 

By the Treaty of Washington it was agreed that the 
Alabama Claims should be submitted for settlement to a 
tribunal of arbitration, consisting of five members, one to 
be named by the President of the United States, one by the 
queen of Great Britain, and the three others to be named, 
one each, by the king of Italy, the president of Switzerland, 
and the emperor of Brazil. The tribunal met at Geneva in 
Switzerland, and in 1872 announced its decision, known as 
the Geneva Award, to the effect that Great Britain had been 


386 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

negligent of her duties as a neutral power, and should pay 
to the United States damages to the amount of fifteen 
million five hundred thousand dollars.- 

Resumption of Specie Payments. — To meet the expenses 
of the War of Secession, the government had issued paper 
money, known as “greenbacks” (see page 360). This 
money was not worth face value so long as the government 
was unable to redeem it in gold or silver coin. In 1875 
Congress passed an act providing that on and after Janu¬ 
ary 1, 1879, the government would redeem in coin all 
this money presented for redemption. Immediately the 
value of “greenbacks” began to rise, and before the time 
set for their redemption they had reached their face 
value. 

In fact, when the day for the redemption of the “green¬ 
backs” in coin arrived, only a very small amount of the 
paper money was presented to the government for redemp¬ 
tion. When the people found that they could get coin for 
their “greenbacks” at any time, paper money became 
worth as much to them as coin, and as paper • money is 
more convenient for trading, they preferred to continue to 
use it. 

Reduction of the War Debt. — The War of Secession 
had left the United States owing nearly three billion dollars 
— a very large debt for the times. Much of it had been 
borrowed at high rates of interest. As soon as the war was 
over, the government set about paying the debt. Each 
year it was considerably reduced. When the ability of 
the United States both to pay the debt and redeem the 
“greenbacks” was seen, the credit of the government rose, 
and people were glad to lend it money at low rates of in¬ 
terest. The government borrowed money by issuing new 
bonds at a lower rate and with the money thus obtained 
paid the old bonds which had borne a higher rate. The 
difference thus saved was a clear gain to the government 
of many million dollars a year. To lessen the burden of a 
debt in this way is known as refunding. 


FOREIGN RELATIONS: FINANCIAL AFFAIRS 387 


Topics and Questions 

1. What was the plan of Napoleon III of France for gaining power 
in North America? What well-known doctrine did he ignore? What 
was the outcome of his plan and the fate of Maximilian? When did 
the United States purchase Alaska? Did we suspect its value then? 

2. Review the career of the Confederate cruiser Alabama and de¬ 
scribe the claims that arose from this and other Confederate cruisers. 
How were the claims settled? 

3. Describe greenbacks. What made them irredeemable? What 
made them redeemable? Why did the people not wish to redeem their 
greenbacks when allowed to do so? Tell how the war debt was reduced. 


CHAPTER XXXV 

THE GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY 

Population. — The latter part of the nineteenth century 
was marked by the wonderful growth of our country. Dur¬ 
ing the same time all the civilized world had made rapid 
development, but no nation had surpassed the United States. 
The population of the United States had grown from thirty- 
one million in i860 to fifty million in 1880. By 1900 it had 
reached seventy-six million, and by the next ten years 
ninety-one million. 

Manufacturing. — The War of Secession had created 
such a demand for American products that every form 
of industry in the North advanced by leaps and bounds 
At the beginning of the century the industry of the country 
was almost wholly agricultural; at the close of the century 
manufacturing exceeded agriculture. In fact, the United 
States has become the greatest manufacturing country 
in the world, its manufactures nearly equaling those of 
Great Britain, Germany, and France combined. 

Agriculture. — Yet, agriculture has had its share in the 
progress of the country, for the farmer had begun raising im¬ 
mense crops. The United States grows more wheat, corn, 
oats, cotton, and tobacco than any other nation. The 
American farmer is also a successful raiser of live stock 0 
More horses, cattle, and hogs are raised in the United States 
than in any other country. 

Commerce. — The United States produces more coal, 
iron and steel, silver, copper, and petroleum than any 
other nation. Its commerce reaches to all parts of the 
world. Prior to the War of Secession the United States 
bought,more from foreign countries than it sold to them; 
since the war it has sold to foreign countries more than it 
has bought from them. 


388 






































■ 


































































































































































Lake 

i Manitoba' 


. ftutc: 


i SE VO 

mmo 


Brown 


80ALE OF MILES 


102 


■ 5.0 


g o aleutjan vg* 
g /«»»■.?■, -v- 7 ^ 


180 Eomgitude 170 West 160 from 150 Greenwich 140 


Longitude 
























































'.oke* 

Vinnipe? 


».J>, SeiTfiMj Xbc’cJVv'X. 


























































' . 



























■ 




























THE GROWTH OP THE COUNTRY 


389 


The North and the Middle West. — About three fourths 
of all manufacturing is done in the region north of the 
Potomac and Ohio rivers and east of the Mississippi, and 
nearly one half is done in the states of New York, Penn¬ 
sylvania, Illinois, and Massachusetts. Many of the factory 
towns in this region are so close together that in passing 



The Westward Movement of Population 


from one to another a person never gets beyond the sound 
of the whirling machinery. Yet, in the western parts of 
New York and Pennsylvania, and especially in the Middle 
West, agriculture continues to be an important industry. 

The Far West. — On account of the discovery of gold in 
California, the country between the Rocky Mountains and 

































39 © HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

the Pacific Ocean had received many settlers before the 
War of Secession, but the country between the Mississippi 
Valley and the Rocky Mountains remained longer unsettled 
because the lands were still supposed to be unsuited to 
habitation and were marked on maps as the “Great 
American Desert.” 

By the time California had been admitted to the Union 
the necessity for a railroad across the continent was seen. 
Such a road would bring the distant state into closer union 
with the rest of the country, and it was urged that Congress 
should appropriate money for its construction. With each 
succeeding year, as people moved to California or Oregon, 
the desire that Congress should aid in building the road 
grew stronger. 

In 1858 gold was found in Colorado. The rush to the new 
gold fields was scarcely less than to California a decade be¬ 
fore. In two years Denver grew from a mining camp to a 
thriving little city. Rich silver mines were found in Nevada; 
and there was another rush of fortune hunters. Then gold 
was found in Montana. It was evident that both gold and 
silver were abundant in much of the Rocky Mountains. 
At once emigration to that region set in. The men who 
sought fortunes in the Rockies joined with the settlers of the 
Pacific Slope in urging the necessity of a transcontinental 
railroad. 

The Pacific Railroads. — By i860 railroads had reached 
the Missouri River; the Pacific coast was nearly two 
thousand miles away. Lines of stagecoaches were estab¬ 
lished as means of communication with the still distant 
West; but the time was one of progress, and this method 
was too slow. Finally Congress consented to aid in build¬ 
ing a railroad to the Pacific. Two companies were chartered: 
the Union Pacific was to build westward from Omaha, 
and the Central Pacific was to build eastward from Sacra¬ 
mento, until their tracks should meet. To each company 
Congress gave about twenty-seven million dollars, besides 
great areas of valuable land along their routes. Work 


THE GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY 


391 


was begun in 1866. Guarded against hostile Indians by 
United States troops, ten thousand laborers toiled at the 
task of laying track over plains and valleys and through lofty 
mountains. Railroads from the east had not yet reached 
Omaha. Material for building the road, westward from 
Omaha had to be hauled overland to that point or taken up 
the Missouri River in steamboats. Material for building 



Completion of the Pacific Railroad 
Meeting of the locomotives of the Union and of the Central Pacific Railroads 


eastward from the Pacific had to be carried by way of the 
Isthmus of Panama or around Cape Horn. Within three 
years (1869) the last spike connecting the two roads was 
driven at Ogden, Utah, and the great continent was at last 
spanned by rails. Men were living who had once thought 
that Oregon was too far off to be of value, and that it was 
not worth holding against the claims of Great Britain 
(see page 276); they now saw the locomotive bring the 
distant country within a few days’ journey. 

Commercial Expansion. — The building of the first Pa¬ 
cific railroad was followed by the construction of others by 


392 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

government aid. In all, the lands granted by the govern¬ 
ment to these western roads exceed Germany in area. 
The roads have not only given to the settlers of the West 
markets in the East for their products, but they have 
proved of great advantage to our commerce with Asia. 
Previously products from Japan, China, and India had been 
brought to America by the long route around the Cape of 
Good Hope; they may now be brought directly across the 



A Cattle Ranch in 1880 


Pacific Ocean and distributed throughout the country by 
the Pacific railroads. Since the Panama Canal was cut (see 
page 454), the Pacific railroads have become of less value to 
the Asiatic trade. 

The Ranchman and the Farmer. — The transcontinental 
railroads first carried to the far West the ranchman. Men 
from the East made fortunes by raising thousands of cattle 
and sheep which were allowed to roam over miles and miles 
of the unoccupied lands and to fatten upon the excellent 
pasturage that the grasses of the great plains furnished. 

When the farmer found out that most of the land of the 
far West was not as unfertile as the description given it — 
the “Great American Desert” — would indicate, he too 









THE GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY 


393 


turned his face westward. The ease with which he could 
acquire ownership of land in the West was a further incen¬ 
tive. In 1862 Congress had passed a “homestead law” 
which gave to the head of a family free title to a tract of 
160 acres after he had resided on it five years. A few years 
later another act gave land free to any man who would 
plant a certain number of trees upon it. 1 Under these 
liberal terms millions of acres were taken up. The farmer, 
fencing in his small holdings, crowded out the ranchman. 
While the West still raises most of our cattle and sheep, 
many thousand small farms have taken the place of the 
ranch. In the West, too, most of our wheat is grown. 

Indian Troubles. — The government had placed the 
Indians on reservations, or tracts of land set aside for their 
use. The Indians of the far West viewed with jealousy 
the building of the Pacific railroads and the inrush of settlers 
that followed. Their jealousy turned to alarm when they 
saw gold seekers taking up lands on their reservations. 
They felt that they were about to lose the last homes to 
which they had been driven. For some years after the 
opening up of the far West there was considerable fighting 
between the Indians and the whites. United States troops 
were used to keep the Indians quiet. 

In 1876 troops were sent against the Sioux Indians who 
had gone upon the war-path. General George A. Custer, 
with less than three hundred cavalrymen, came upon the 
Sioux in the Little Big Horn Valley in Montana. The 
Indians, numbering two thousand, were led by their chief, 
Sitting Bull. They overpowered the little band of cavalry 
before the rest of the troops could come to Custer’s assist¬ 
ance. Custer and every one of his men were killed. The 
Sioux were subdued soon after, but Sitting Bull and a few 
of his followers succeeded in escaping into Canada. This 
was the last serious trouble that our government had with' 
the Indians. 

1 Much of the prairie and plain is bare of trees — hence the desirfc 
of the government to have trees planted. 


394 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


The Panic of 1873. — It often happens that in thriving 
times business men become reckless. In the prosperity 
that followed the War of Secession many engaged in rash 
speculations, taking great risks in the hope of making large 
gains. The success of the Pacific railroad turned specu¬ 
lation to railroad building. Within five years more than 
one billion five hundred million dollars were spent in con¬ 
structing railroads. Borrowed money furnished the capital 
for these roads, and they were built much faster than there 
was demand for them. Many ran through sections of coun¬ 
try so sparsely settled that years must pass before they 
could become profitable. But interest on the money bor¬ 
rowed for their construction had in the meantime to be 
paid, and when the creditors began to press for their money 
the crash came. It started in 1873, with the failure of a 
Philadelphia banking house that was interested in the 
Northern Pacific Railroad, then in the course of construc¬ 
tion. Other failures rapidly followed, causing a financial 
panic from the effects of which it took some years for business 
to recover. 

The “New South.” — By 1877 the last of the “carpet¬ 
bag” governments in the South had been overturned (see 
page 382). Freed from misrule, the South took on new 
life, and when the panic from which the whole country had 
suffered passed away, that section joined with the rest of 
the nation in the march of progress. 

With the abolition of slavery, the old plantation system of 
the South had broken down. The plantation required a large 
force of laborers such as could not be obtained from the ne¬ 
groes so recently freed from slavery. How many of the ig¬ 
norant black men, misguided by the “carpet-bagger” and 
“scalawag,” refused to work has been told (see page 373), 
Yet the breaking down of the plantation system, which at 
first seemed unfortunate, eventually proved of benefit to 
both whites and blacks. The cotton planter, who had been 
accustomed to cultivating his wide acres by the use of 
slave labor, was compelled to divide his plantation into 


THE GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY 


395 


small parcels which he rented to the poorer whites and to 
industrious negroes. Much of the cotton is now grown by 
these small farmers, some of whom have bought the land 
that they rented. The former cotton planter and his 
sons turned to planting crops besides cotton and to engaging 
in pursuits other than agriculture. 

The South’s Natural Resources. — The South had always, 
in addition to cotton, grown tobacco, rice, and sugar cane. 
After the War of Secession more fields were planted in these 
staples, while others were given over to wheat and corn and, 
later, alfalfa. Moreover, the mild winters of the South 



Harvesting Rice in Louisiana 


make fruit growing profitable, and the early springs truck 
farming. To-day this section furnishes the North and 
Northwest with the early fruits and vegetables. The South 
is still, however, the land of cotton, for it produces nearly 
three fourths of the cotton grown in the world. 

In the rivers of the South there is power sufficient to run 
countless factories, and nearby is the cotton for the raw 
material. In its mountains are vast quantities of iron, 
and by the side of the iron is the coal needed to work the 
metal; and its forests contain valuable lumber. The Old 
South, wholly agricultural, has given place to a New South 
that is taking advantage of the opportunities offered by its 
natural resources. Factories, furnaces, and lumber mills 
have been erected in the South. They have brought much 
wealth to that section, given employment to many persons, 







396 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

and have converted towns into thriving cities. Northern 
capitalists, realizing the splendid resources of the South, 
have aided in their development. Northern people have 
removed into the South to live. The commingling of the 
people of the two sections hastened the time when the 
ill feeling between the North and the South, bred by the war, 
passed away. 

Oklahoma. — The Indians when placed on reservations 
continued to live under their old tribal relation -— that is, 
they did not individually own land; the members of a tribe 



A Southern Cotton Mill 


held in common the land allotted to the tribe by the govern- 
ment. The largest of the reservations was Indian Territory.; 
lying west of Arkansas and north of Texas. After many 
years the government decided that the Indian would be 
better off if he individually owned land. The policy was 
therefore adopted of giving free to each Indian an allotment 
of the land and of buying the rest from the tribe and throw¬ 
ing it open to settlers. 

The government first bought the central part of Indian 
Territory, known as Oklahoma, “Beautiful Land.” In 1889 
Congress passed an act for opening Oklahoma to settlement 
A homestead could be secured by the first person who should 
“stake” the land. By proclamation of the President. 



397 


l the growth of the country 

April 2:2 was set as the day for the opening, the proclamation 
declaring that any person entering the territory before noon 
of that day would be debarred from claiming land. Great 
crowds gathered on the border line, awaiting the signal for 
crossing. As a bugle sounded to announce the appointed 
time, there was a wild rush to take up land. More than 
fifty thousand persons poured into the territory on the 
first day. Where in the morning there was only the lonely 
prairie, by night the city of Guthrie had sprung up. A bank 
had been established, and steps had been taken to organize 
a municipal government. Within four months Guthrie 
had a population of eight thousand, four daily newspapers, 
waterworks, street car and electric light systems, and six 



Waiting on the Frontier of Oklahoma 


banks. As other portions of Indian Territory were pur¬ 
chased, they were made parts of Oklahoma and opened to 
settlement. So marvelous was the growth of Oklahoma 
that the census taken only eleven years after its opening to 
settlement (1900) showed that four hundred thousand per¬ 
sons were living in the territory. 

Passing of the Frontier. — By 1890 most of the public 
lands west of the Mississippi suitable for cultivation had 
been taken up. The frontier, which ever since the day the 
English landed at Jamestown had steadily moved westward, 
had now vanished. Thrifty farms dotted the country to the 
Pacific Ocean. The straggling towns of the “Wild West,” 
where miners and cowboys used to gather to enjoy release 




398 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

from their hard labor, have become neat villages; some of 
them, indeed, have become cities of considerable size. 
The border life, often picturesque, and often rough and 
lawless, has gone forever. Memory of it alone lives in 
stories, shows, and motion pictures. 

Admission of States. — Since California was admitted 
into the Union in 1850, the following states have been 
admitted: Minnesota (1858); Oregon (1859); Kansas 
(1861); West Virginia (1863); Nevada (1864); Nebraska 
(1867); Colorado (1876); North Dakota (1889); South 
Dakota (1889); Montana (1889); Washington (1889); 
Idaho (1890); Wyoming (1890); Utah (1896); Oklahoma 
(1907); New Mexico (1912); Arizona (1912). With the 
exception of West Virginia, which was carved from the 
state of Virginia because its people did not wish to go into 
the Confederacy, all these states lie west of the Mississippi 
River. Their admission converts into states the entire area 
of the United States proper, except the District of Colum¬ 
bia, in which the Federal capital is located and which will 
always remain under control of Congress. 

Foreigners Come in Great Waves. — Immigration from 
Europe, which during the War of Secession fell off consider¬ 
ably, began, with the coming of peace, to flood our shores in 
even greater waves than before. It became not unusual for 
the number of immigrants arriving in one year to exceed the 
whole number that came over during the time between the 
settlement of Jamestown and the breaking out of the Rev¬ 
olution. Until about 1880 the immigrants continued to be 
in the main people from northern Europe — from the British 
Isles, Germany, and the Scandanavian countries, — but since 
that time they have been mostly people from southeastern 
Europe, — from southern Russia, Poland, Hungary, Bo¬ 
hemia, Serbia, Greece, and Italy. 

Undesirable Immigrants. — While the class of immi¬ 
grants that has come to this country in late years has 
brought good people, yet on the whole the order of intel¬ 
ligence is lower than that of the class that had come 


THE GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY 


399 


previously. In fact, many of the recent arrivals are unde¬ 
sirable. Immigrants of the undesirable type have in the 
main, stayed in the cities of the North and Northwest 
where it ,is easier for them to get employment, though 
some work in mines or as laborers on the railroads. Each 
race has gathered together in a “colony,” there keeping up 
old habits and methods of living. These ignorant foreigners, 
are willing to work for low wages and when congregated in 
sufficient numbers to reduce wages, they affect Amer¬ 
ican laborers, for no self-respecting American will live as 
they do. It is difficult for the influence of American 
life to reach them; yet in a short time — too short to learn 
the spirit of our institutions — they become citizens and 
are given the ballot. Downtrodden by tyrannical govern¬ 
ments in the Old World, they are suspicious of all gov¬ 
ernments; consequently, they are easily led by agitators. 

Immigration a Serious Problem. — In earlier times the 
belief was very general that our country should be an asylum 
for the oppressed of all lands. Every encouragement was 
given to immigration. America was called the “melting 
pot,” for here the peoples of many different nations were 
welded into one citizenship. All went well as long as 
immigration was of the desirable class, but the influx of so 
many undesirables has brought about a change of senti¬ 
ment. Congress has passed laws prohibiting convicts, 
lunatics, paupers, anarchists, and persons afflicted with 
loathsome or contagious diseases from entering the coun¬ 
try, but the laws have not given much relief because the 
trouble lies deeper — it lies in the ignorance and the low 
standard of living of many of the immigrants who have come 
to America in recent years. 

Growth of the Cities. — While the growth of our country 
has been remarkable, the growth of our cities has been more 
remarkable, for they have grown even faster than the coun¬ 
try as a whole. Not only have most of the immigrants 
stopped in the cities, but also people from the rural districts 
have moved into them. In most cities a majority of the 


400 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

inhabitants were born elsewhere in the state or in other 
states, and in some of the larger ones the majority are 
foreign born. Nearly half the people of the United States 
now live in the cities. 

New York has become the largest city of the world. The 
census of 1910 gave it nearly five million inhabitants, and 
it has gained more than a million since that year. Chicago, 
with its two million, and Philadelphia with its million and 
a half, are our second and third largest cities. Nearly one 
tenth of the population of the country may be found in New 
York, Chicago and Philadelphia. The next largest cities, 
each having more than half a million inhabitants, are, in 
the order named: St. Louis, Boston, Cleveland, Baltimore, 
and Pittsburgh. Ten others have a population of between 
three hundred and five hundred thousand; ten have between 
two hundred and three hundred thousand; while twenty- 
two have between one hundred and two hundred thousand,, 
Most of these cities are in the North and West. The cities 
in the South that according to the census of 1910 had more 
than one hundred thousand inhabitants are New Orleans, 
Atlanta, Birmingham, Memphis, Richmond, and Nashville, 

All Classes Seek the Cities. — The rich and the poor and 
the middle class have alike sought the city. It is there that 
we see the extremes of wealth and poverty. In crowded 
tenements on the narrow streets of the old quarter we find 
the very poor; in imposing mansions on the wide streets 
and boulevards of the new part we find the very rich. In 
the business section are stores of all kinds, immense fac¬ 
tories, and tall office buildings, known as “sky-scrapers.” 

Wealth has greatly improved the cities; yet most of the 
improvements have come since the beginning of the last 
quarter of the nineteenth century. With well-lighted and 
well-paved streets, with excellent water and sewerage 
systems, with electric railways, and with all other modern 
conveniences, the condition of the cities at the close of the 
nineteenth century was in marked contrast to their condition 
only a few years earlier. 


THE GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY 


401 


Topics and Questions 

1. How had population increased in the latter part of the nineteenth 
century? What effect did the War of Secession have upon manu¬ 
factures? Tell of the growth of agriculture and commerce. 

2. Describe the industrial conditions of the North and Northwest. 
Trace the growth of the demand for a railroad to the Pacific Ocean. 
Tell the story of the building of the first Pacific railroads. What 
commercial results followed the building of these roads? How did 
these roads aid in peopling the Far West? 

3. What led to the massacre of General Custer and his men by the 
Sioux? Was it strange that the Sioux made this war on the whites? 

4. Trace the causes of the panic of 1873. What was the result of 
the panic? 

5. Describe the effect that the abolition of slavery had upon the old 
plantation system of the South. Was the change for the better? 
State the natural resources of the South and the industrial growth of 
the “New South.” 

6. Why did crowds gather on the border line of the “Beautiful 
Land,” April 22, 1889? What did they do with their new land in the 
next ten years? 

7. Name some of the states admitted since 1850. In what section 
are all these states, with the exception of one, located? 

8. After the War of Secession immigrants from Europe came to 
America in great numbers. From what countries of Europe did most 
of the immigrants come prior to the year 1880? After that year? 
Why are so many of the immigrants who have come over in recent 
years undesirable? 

9. Which is the largest city in the United States? The second 
largest? The third? Name the six largest cities in the South. What 
classes do we find in the cities? How did the cities improve in the last 
quarter of the nineteenth century? 

Project Exercises 

1. Review Chapters XXV and XXVI. Write an essay showing 
briefly the gain made in population, and the progress made in manu¬ 
facturing, agriculture, commerce, and methods of travel, in the nine¬ 
teenth century. 

2. Contrast the South of one hundred years ago with the South of 
to-day (See pages 178, 226 and 237). 

3. Are there many immigrants in your section of the country? 
If not, why? 


CHAPTER XXXVI 
THE AGE OF STEEL AND ELECTRICITY 

The Centennial Exposition. — By 1876 a hundred years 

had passed since the United States had declared themselves 
free and independent. In celebration of the centennial, 
a fair was held that year at Philadelphia, the city in which 
the Declaration of Independence had been signed. The 
fair was the greatest that had been held up to that time 
Nearly every nation of the civilized world was represented 
by an exhibit. Most of the states of the Union and many 
American commercial houses also sent contributions to the 
exhibition. People gathering from every clime saw what 
progress the people of other nations had made in art, science, 
trade, and industry. They returned to their homes with 
increased knowledge of the world. The exhibits of our own 
people surpassed all others. 

From time to time other great fairs, or expositions as they 
are usually called, have been held in different cities, and each 
in turn has shown the progress that has been made in the 
world, especially in the United States, since the preceding 
fair was held. 

The Uses of Steel. — Industry could not have made so 
great advancement if it had not been for the use of improved 
machinery. The discovery in 1856, by Henry Bessemer, 
an Englishman, of a cheap process for converting iron into 
steel, made possible great strides in the making of machinery, 
for steel is stronger and more durable than iron. All over 
the civilized world men turned their attention more than 
ever before to inventing machines that would save time and 
labor. In the period following the War of Secession more 
mechanical inventions have been made than in all previous 
periods of history combined. Many of the most important 

402 


THE AGE OF STEEL AND ELECTRICITY 


403 

inventions were made in Europe, but no nation has excelled 
America in inventive genius. 

Nearly all kinds of work can now be done by machinery. 
Not only does the manufacturer turn out rapidly by ma¬ 
chinery products that were 
once slowly and tediously 
made by hand, but also the 
farmer plows the ground, 
plants the seed, and gathers 
the crop by machinery, 1 and 
the miner uses machinery in 
extracting bulky ore and 
shipping it to market. 

Steel is used to advantage 
in many ways besides in 
machinery. It is used in 
heavy construction work: 
large ships, railway coaches, 
bridges, and the frames of 
“sky-scrapers” are made of 
it. It is employed in mak¬ 
ing weapons of war, and 
common tools, it is also 
used to make the most del¬ 
icate instruments. 

The Atlantic Cable. — est building in the world. This has a steel 
Through the efforts of Cyrus frame ‘ 

W. Field of New York, who 

got his idea from Matthew F. Maury, an officer of the 
United States and Confederate States navies, a telegraphic 
cable was laid, in 1858, on the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean 
from Newfoundland to Ireland. After a few weeks of com¬ 
munication between the Old World and the New, the cable, 
through some imperfection, failed to work. A second 
attempt to lay a cable also proved a failure, yet Field did 

1 Except in the case of cotton, for the picking of which no satis¬ 
factory machine has yet been invented. 



A Modern “Sky-Scraper" 

Wool worth Building, New York; the tall- 










404 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

not lose faith in the enterprise. In 1866 his third attempt 
was crowned with success. A cable was laid from Ireland to 
Newfoundland through which telegraphic service between 
America and Europe has since continued without interrup¬ 
tion. Cables have also been laid in other oceans. The 
submarine cable brings all parts of the world into close 
touch; every day it carries to the readers of the newspapers 
the happenings of other countries; it has revolutionized 
methods of trade by reporting daily the condition of the 
markets of all the great cities. 

Other Uses of Electricity. — But electricity was to be put 
to yet other uses. At the Centennial Exposition of 1876 
Alexander Graham Bell of Washington exhibited the tele¬ 
phone which he had just invented. In 1878 an English¬ 
man invented the arc light for illuminating streets by 
electricity and in 1879 Thomas A. Edison, a native of 
Ohio, invented the incandescent light for illuminating 
houses by electricity. Though for many years inventors in 
different countries had been working on a machine for pro¬ 
ducing electric currents, the results were not altogether 
satisfactory until about 1880, when the dynamo was per¬ 
fected. The dynamo is a machine driven by steam, gas, 
or water power. The electricity generated by it may be 
carried great distances by means of wires, and be used in 
running machinery and street cars and in lighting cities 
and buildings. In 1888 the first street railway line in 
America, equipped to run its cars by electric power, was 
put in operation in Richmond. 

One of the greatest of electric inventions is wireless teleg¬ 
raphy. For some years it had been known that electric 
messages could be sent a short distance without the use of 
wires. In 1895, Marconi, an Italian scientist, invented an 
instrument that would send and receive messages by elec¬ 
tricity through great space without wires. Very soon steam¬ 
ships began using wireless telegraphy for making communica¬ 
tions at sea. Messages are now passed between America 
and Europe by means of wireless telegraphy. 


THE AGE OF STEEL AND ELECTRICITY 405 

Uses of Petroleum. — Petroleum is an oil found in large 
quantities in the Middle West and in the Southwest, and is 
a great factor in the promotion of industry because of 
the many uses to which it may be put. Petroleum is used 
for lubricating machinery, for illuminating purposes, and 
for fuel; it is also used as an ingredient in many manu¬ 
factured products and is valuable for medicinal purposes. 
Kerosene, which is used for lighting, is obtained from petro¬ 
leum. Gasoline, used as fuel in stoves and engines, is a 
form of this oil. 

Since gas-engines are lighter and more easily run than 
steam engines, they are better suited to many purposes. 
Engines, with gasoline as fuel, are used to run farm machin¬ 
ery, the automobile, and the aeroplane. Many warships 
are now run by engines using crude oil. 

The Automobile and the Aeroplane. — Like most other 
inventions, neither' the automobile nor the aeroplane is the 
result of one man’s work. For 
very many years, men in every 
part of the world had experi¬ 
mented on both the horseless 
vehicle and the flying machine. 

By 1886 an automobile and, ten 
years later, an aeroplane had been 
constructed that were of practical 
use. The millions of automobiles 
that are now used daily show the 
importance of this invention. 

The value of the aeroplane for 
use in war has already been 
shown; without doubt its value 
for commercial purposes will 
eventually prove to be as great. 

The Trusts. — With machinery turning out products 
rapidly and with railroads carrying them to every part of 
the country, successful business men saw that it would be 
to their advantage to combine their wealth so as to conduct 



An Aeroplane 





406 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


business on a large scale under one management. Such 
combinations are known as corporations, and they became 
common soon after the close of the War of Secession. Later 
combinations of capital began to be made on a more gigantic 
scale. To save competition among themselves, corporations 
which were already large consolidated. These immense 
combinations are usually known as trusts. By buying up 
smaller concerns, or forcing them out of the market, the 
trusts at one time seemed likely to secure control of the 
business of the country. Though it is true that com¬ 
binations of capital enable business to be conducted more 
efficiently, yet, since the formation of a trust is sometimes 
followed by increased prices, many people came to look upon 
a trust as a monopoly formed for extorting money from 
them (see pages 415, 417, and 456). 

Effect upon the Employed. — The formation of corpora¬ 
tions made a great change in the relation between labor and 
capital. The laborer, instead of dealing directly with an 
individual as his employer, has to deal with the agent of a 
combination of men, not one of whom, possibly, he has 
ever seen. The sympathy between employer and employed 
lessened as their personal contact with each other lessened. 
There came instead a mutual distrust. 

Combinations of Labor. — When capital began to com¬ 
bine, labor also began to organize, the laborers of each trade 
forming their own union. Then, “The Noble Order of 
Knights of Labor” was formed to unite all working-men 
into one organization for the protection of the laboring 
interests. The growth of this order was rapid. When, how¬ 
ever, it united with a political party it lost its influence. Its 
place has been taken by the American Federation of Labor, 
an organization in which the union in each trade has repre¬ 
sentation. The American Federation of Labor has never 
united with a political party; its policy is to attain its ends 
by bringing pressure to bear upon all political parties. 

Reforms Secured by Labor Unions. — The labor unions 
have done much to improve the lot of the laborer. Among 


THE AGE OF STEEL AND ELECTRICITY 


407 


other things they have secured higher wages, shorter hours 
of work, better sanitary conditions about the shops, and 
safeguards against the dangers of machinery. The unions 
have not secured reforms without hard struggle. In fact, 
the contest between capital and labor is still going on, the 
capitalist claiming that the laborer often demands more 
than he is entitled to. 

The most effective weapon the laborers have is the 
“strike.” When they do not get what they regard as just, 
they tie up business by quitting work, or “striking.” It 
has always been the wish of labor organizations to conduct 
the contest for their rights without violence, but unfortu¬ 
nately many of the immigrant laborers from the lowest 
classes of Europe that have settled in the North and West 
have but little respect for law and order. These men often 
turn a strike into an occasion for the destruction of life 
and property. 

The Pittsburgh Riot. — The first great strike in the United 
States occurred in 1877 among the employees of leading 
railroad lines in the Middle and Western states, on account 
of a reduction in wages. The coal miners also struck. 
About a hundred thousand men in all quit work. The 
lawless element, gathering in an immense mob, held com¬ 
plete control of Pittsburgh for days. The rioters destroyed 
railroad cars and buildings and other property, and brought 
the business of the railroads to a standstill, while collisions 
between the militia and the mob resulted in bloodshed. 
United States troops, which President Hayes sent to the 
scene, quelled the riot. The value of property destroyed is 
estimated at ten million dollars. 

Education. — The public school system now prevails 
throughout the country. The term has been length¬ 
ened, and the schools in all the cities and many of the 
rural districts have been graded. In rural districts, too 
sparsely settled to support properly their own schools, the 
plan has been introduced of combining two or more weak 
schools into one strong central school. Pupils from many 


408 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


miles around are brought to the consolidated school in 
vehicles free of charge. The result of these improvements 
in our public schools is shown in the steady reduction of the 
number of persons who cannot read or write. 

With the expansion of industry came a decided change 
in the course of study in the high school. Formerly the 
idea was to train the pupil for college, and as colleges then 
prepared only for the professions, such as the ministry, law, 
medicine, and letters, the course stressed Latin and Greek 
and mathematics. Such a course was not suited to the great 
mass of persons who were not to go into the professions. 
The new idea of education calls for the training of each 
pupil in a manner to make him most fit for the vocation 
which he is to follow. The fundamentals are still taught — 
for everybody needs them — but the pupil in the high 
school is given the opportunity of studying the classics, 
bookkeeping, typewriting and stenography, and agricul¬ 
ture. Boys may study manual training, and girls may 
study domestic science. 

The Federal Government Gives Aid to Education. — In 

giving aid to education the United States government has 
been most liberal. When the Northwest Territory was 
organized in 1787, Congress set aside land for the purpose 
of using the funds derived from its sale for education. The 
policy was followed in organizing other territories, and from 
it have come the splendid public schools and state univer¬ 
sities of the West. In 1862, the same year that the Depart¬ 
ment of Agriculture was established, Congress appropriated 
to each state in the Union, in proportion to its population, 
funds from the sale of public lands to be used for teaching 
agricultural and technical branches. Some of the states 
use the fund to teach these branches in their state uni¬ 
versities, while others have organized separate agricultural 
and mechanical colleges. From time to time other appro¬ 
priations have been made by Congress to promote the 
study of agriculture. The object is to make farming more 
scientific and hence more attractive and profitable. Already 


THE AGE OF STEEL AND ELECTRICITY 409 

the agricultural colleges and schools have done much to 
improve the farming industry. 

Woman’s Rights. — By the close of the nineteenth cen¬ 
tury women had come to take an active part in the affairs 
of life. Women were employed in shops, stores, and offices; 
they were practicing law and medicine; they were the heads 
of large business concerns. The conviction was growing 
that women should be given the same opportunities as 
men. Already the idea of the olden days, that a woman 
needed only the elementary education of an academy or 
seminary and some training in music, had passed away. 
Colleges had been established exclusively for women where 
they could get the same education as men, and many col¬ 
leges originally founded for men had opened their doors 
to women. 

But without the right to vote, women could never have 
an equality with men. The movement to give the ballot 
to women, which was begun fifty years earlier (see page 300), 
had gained in favor until by the end of the century a number 
of states had granted woman’s 
suffrage. In other states 
women were given the right to 
vote on certain matters, such 
as school questions and the 
issuing of bonds. 

Literature. — In this age of 
material progress were to be 
found eminent men of letters, 
but not such masters as the 
preceding period produced. 

The foremost novelists were 
Thomas Bailey Aldrich and 
William Dean Howells, both of Sidney Lanier 

New England, and Henry 

James, a native of New York. The South produced the 
sweet singers, Henry Timrod, Paul Hamilton Hayne, Father 
Ryan, and Sidney Lanier. From the Middle West came 




















































410 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

two poets who wrote charmingly of child life, Eugene Field 
and James Whitcomb Riley. The Far West was portrayed 
in the humor of Samuel L. Clemens (“Mark Twain”) and 
the stories and poems of Bret Harte. The study of history 
had developed into a science, and some of our best historians 
belong to this period, among them James Schouler, Henry 
Adams, Hubert Howe Bancroft, John Fiske, John Bach 
McMaster, James Ford Rhodes, and Woodrow Wilson. 

The Newspaper and the Magazine. — The modern print¬ 
ing press, the telegraph, and the submarine cable have 
brought journalism to a high degree of usefulness. The 
daily newspaper now prints news of the events of the world 
a few hours after they happen, and the railroads carry the 
newspaper to homes far away from the city where it is 
published. The modem magazine employs specially quali¬ 
fied persons to write on current matters. Through this 
medium the reader may receive the latest information on 
science, politics, history, religion, finance, and every other 
subject of interest. 


Topics and Questions 

1. What was the object of the Centennial Exposition in 1876? 
Describe the Exposition. 

2. What discovery made iron more useful? Mention some of the 
uses of steel. 

3. Tell of Cyrus W. Field’s untiring efforts to lay a telegraphic 
cable in the Atlantic Ocean, connecting America and Europe. Give 
interesting facts about the following inventions: telephone, arc light, 
incandescent light, and the dynamo. Relate the story of Marconi 
and his wireless telegraphy. 

4. Tell where petroleum is found and mention some of its uses. 
Give an account of the invention of the automobile. Of the aeroplane. 

5. Why did successful business men form corporations? How 
have corporations affected the relation between the employer and the 
employed? Give the history of labor unions and mention some of the 
reforms that the unions have secured. Define the “strike.” Describe 
the Pittsburg Riot of 1877 and its cost. 

6. Trace the progress made in the public school system. Show 
how the Federal government has aided education. Describe the 
growth of the movement for woman’s rights. 


THE AGE OF STEEL AND ELECTRICITY 


411 

7. Name some of the authors prominent in the last quarter of the 
nineteenth century. Have you read any of their works? How do 
the modem newspaper and magazine meet the demands of the people? 

Project Exercises 

1. Mention some of the inventions, discoveries, and conveniences 
which we now enjoy, that were unknown to people seventy-five years 
ago. 

2. If you have a friend who is a member of a labor union, ask him 
to explain to you its objects and the plan upon which it is conducted. 
Write an essay telling what you have learned about labor unions. 

3. Contrast the schools of Washington’s time with the schools of 
to-day (see page 187). 


CHAPTER XXXVII 


GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS 

Evils of the “Spoils System.” — The practice of turning 
out office-holders belonging to the defeated political party, 
the “spoils system/’ which had begun when Jackson as¬ 
sumed the Presidency (see page 260), and which all political 
parties had followed when gaining control of the government, 
had so debauched the civil service 1 as to endanger the 
government. The War of Secession had required the 
spending of so much money by the government that officials 
had grown careless about the public funds; the upholding 
of dishonest “carpet-bag” governments in the South had 
set a bad example to office-holders of the Federal govern¬ 
ment; lastly, President Grant, though personally honest, 
was too credulous and was persuaded to give places of im¬ 
portance to men who were unworthy. Consequently, much 
corruption had crept into government circles. 

The “Whiskey Ring.” — The greatest of the schemes to 
defraud the Federal government was the “Whiskey Ring.” 
In 1875 it was discovered that prominent officials were in 
league with illicit distillers to cheat the government out of 
the tax due on whiskey. The ring had its headquarters in 
St. Louis, and had branch offices in many of the principal 
cities. It even had an agent in Washington. Investigation 
showed that in one year the government had been defrauded 
of almost two million dollars. Most of the leaders of the 
ring were convicted and punished. 

Corruption in Municipal Governments. — Corruption 
extended to state and city governments. A ring led by 

1 The civil service includes all persons employed by the government 
except those in the military and naval service. 

412 


GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS 


41 $ 

William M. Tweed robbed New York City of ten million 
dollars in three years. When the fraud was discovered in 
1871, some of the guilty persons were convicted and pun¬ 
ished. Tweed died in prison while awaiting trial. 

The stealing of public funds was accomplished in many 
ways. The most common method was to enter on the 
government accounts charges for work larger than the work 
actually cost and sometimes charges for work never per¬ 
formed. Officials kept for themselves the money thus 
illicitly taken from the treasury. As the guilty parties 
usually did the bookkeeping, it was often difficult to detect 
the fraud. The stealing of government funds by indirect 
methods is now known as “grafting.” 

Reform of the Civil Service Needed. — The punishment 
of some of the offenders did not get at the root of the trou¬ 
ble. Since the “spoils system” had honeycombed the civil 
service with unworthy office-holders, the remedy was to 
reform the service, and this could be done only by the 
appointment of persons to office on account of their fitness 
instead of their political influence. 

President Hayes took a firm stand against the “spoils 
system,” and did much to improve the service by filling 
vacancies with worthy appointees. Advocates of civil 
service reform demanded that a law be passed to prevent 
unworthy persons from securing the offices, but the average 
Congressman had come to look upon public offices as places 
that he should be allowed to use as rewards for his faithful 
constituents; consequently, no definite steps toward reform 
were taken in Hayes’ administration. 

Assassination of President Garfield. — James A. Garfield 
of Ohio, the Republican nominee, was elected to succeed 
Hayes in the Presidency. Garfield had been before the 
people so long as a distinguished member of Congress that 
his merits were well recognized. Everybody looked for¬ 
ward to a conservative, safe administration. But the 
evils of the “spoils system,” which Hayes had done much 
toward checking, broke out afresh with Garfield’s inaugu- 


414 HISTORY OP THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


ration in 1881. Washington swarmed with applicants for 
office. 

A few months after his inauguration, President Garfield 
was shot in a railway station at Washington by a disap¬ 
pointed office-seeker. For more than two months he made 
a brave struggle against death, while from every part of 
the country prayers went up for his recovery. He died, as 
the result of his wound, on September 19, 1881. Vice Pres- 



James A. Garfield Chester A. Arthur 


ident Chester A. Arthur of New York took the oath of 
office as President the day after the death of Garfield. 

The Civil Service Reform Law. — The assassination of 
President Garfield brought the question of civil service reform 
home to the people; not only must the service be improved, 
but the President must be relieved of the pressure from, 
office-seekers. So strong a demand arose for a civil service 
law that Congress could not ignore it. In 1883 Congress 
passed an act creating a Civil Service Commission. It is 
the duty of this commission to hold examinations of appli¬ 
cants for office; those who prove to be the best qualified 
must be selected, no matter to what political party they 
belong. 1 President Arthur, who favored civil service re- 

1 The Civil Service Act applies directly only to a few minor positions, 
as the Constitution gives to the President the right to make appoint- 


GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS 


415 


form, aided in making the law effective. In fact, no admin¬ 
istration has been more free from partisanship than his. 

Grover Cleveland, President. — In 1885 Grover Cleve¬ 
land of New York succeeded Arthur as President. Cleve¬ 
land was the first Democrat after Buchanan to reach the 
Presidency and was a sincere advocate of reform in all 
governmental matters. But, 
since the Democrats had been 
out of power for twenty-eight 
years, they set up a cry that 
the Republican office-holders 
should be turned out and the 
offices be given to them. 

Fortunately, Cleveland stoutly 
refused to turn out office-hold¬ 
ers merely on account of their 
political belief, for if he had 
yielded to the clamor of the 
members of his party, he would 
have given a severe blow to 
the movement for civil service 
reform, which was just beginning to get a foothold. Presi¬ 
dent Cleveland took a firm stand also against the evils that 
had arisen in the pension system. Public sentiment, growing 
out of a feeling of gratitude, had called for liberal rewards 
in the shape of pensions to the soldiers who had fought for 
the Union. This liberality had been abused; many persons 
were drawing pensions that they did not deserve. Cleveland 
did not hesitate to veto acts of Congress granting pensions 
whenever he considered such pensions improper. 

Governmental Regulation of Business. — The unrest 

ments to most of the offices. Yet the President may place under the 
operation of the law such offices as he chooses. For the good of the 
service and to save themselves from the pressure of office-seekers, 
the Presidents have from time to time so extended the workings of the 
law that most of the positions can now be secured only through a civil 
service examination. 



Grover Cleveland 


416 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


in the business world increased. As more trusts were 
organized and prices went higher, the feeling against “big 
business,” as the controlling of industry was called, grew 
stronger. On the other hand, the repeated strikes of the 
laboring men, by shutting down the factories and mines, 
did their part toward causing prices to rise. The suffering 
public began to advocate that the Federal government 
should, in the interest of the people, regulate the methods 
of business. 

Railroad Rates Regulated. — The railroad business was 
the first that Congress sought to regulate. The railroads 
had so combined that five or six large systems controlled 
the entire carrying trade of the country. Much feeling had 
been aroused against these systems because it was believed 
that they were unfair in making their rates. Acting under 
the power given it by the Constitution to control commerce 
between the states, Congress, in 1887, passed the inter¬ 
state commerce law for the purpose of regulating the freight 
and passenger rates charged by railroads running from one 
state to another. The chief purpose of the act is to prevent 
the charging of exorbitant rates and the granting of special 
concessions that would give favored shippers or cities unfair 
advantage over others. A commission appointed by the 
President sees that the law is observed. 

The Year of Strikes. — There were so many strikes in 
1886 that the year is often called the year of strikes. The 
most memorable one occurred in Chicago, where many 
thousand laboring men quit work in an effort to secure the 
adoption of eight hours as a day’s labor. In a riot anar¬ 
chists threw into the ranks of the police a dynamite bomb 
which caused the death of seven policemen and the wounding 
of many others. Four anarchists, convicted of complicity 
in the crime, were hanged. 

Cleveland Wishes to Reduce the Tariff. — President 
Cleveland believed that much of the discontent existing in 
business was due to the high tariff. This tax had been 
placed on goods brought into the country for the purpose of 


GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS 


417 


meeting the expenses of the War of Secession, and in the 
years that had followed the war it had been reduced very 
little. The tariff was now bringing in a much larger revenue 
than the government needed for expenses and was accumu¬ 
lating an enormous surplus of money in the treasury; at the 
same time the tariff was enabling American manufacturers 
to exact higher prices for their goods, and for this reason 
it was charged that the tariff was the “mother of trusts.” 
Cleveland held the view, which had always been a Demo¬ 
cratic doctrine, that the tariff was a tax on the people that 
should not be higher than necessary to meet the expenses 
of the government, and being a reformer by nature, he wished 
to reform the tariff. The Republicans, on the other hand, 
claimed that a high tariff is proper because it protects 
American industries, and because, they alleged, it enables 
laborers to get higher wages. 

Harrison Defeats Cleveland. — Cleveland sent a message 
to Congress recommending that the tariff be reduced. 
As the Republicans con¬ 
trolled the Senate, Congress 
did not comply with the 
President’s suggestion; and 
the stand taken by Cleveland 
made the tariff the leading 
issue in the presidential cam¬ 
paign of 1888. The Demo¬ 
cratic party declared for a 
tariff for revenue only, and 
renominated Cleveland. The 
Republicans, advocating a 
tariff for protection nomi¬ 
nated Benjamin Harrison of 
Indiana, a grandson of Presi¬ 
dent William Henry Harrison. Cleveland had estranged 
many of his own party by his stand for civil service reform; 
he had offended the soldier vote by his vetoes of pension 
bills that he thought were not right, and the manufac- 



Benjamin Harrison 


418 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

turers by his recommendation of a reduction in the tariff. 
The contest resulted in the election of Harrison. 

New Tariff Act; New Pension Act. — The Republicans 
took the result of the election to mean that the people 
approved of a high tariff. Having gained control not only 
of the Presidency, but also of both houses of Congress, they 
enacted a new tariff law in 1890. This act raised the tariff 
still higher. 

The Republicans determined to spend on pensions a part 
of the surplus in the treasury. In 1890 Congress passed 
an act which pensioned all soldiers of the Union who had 
served ninety days in the War of Secession, and who were 
unable to do manual labor; also the widows and children 
and parents of such soldiers. The result of the act was 
to increase enormously the number of persons on the pension 
roll. 1 

In 1892 the people, dissatisfied with the way that the 
Republicans had managed the government, reelected Grover 
Cleveland to the Presidency. 

Arbitration of International Disputes. —The United States 
claimed the right to control the seal fisheries in Bering Sea, 
off the coast of Alaska, and, to prevent the total destruction 
of these valuable animals, had placed regulations upon seal 
catching. Vessels violating the regulations were seized 
As some of these vessels belonged to Canadians, the British 
government protested. The dispute was referred to a 
commission of arbitration. The decision of the commission, 
made in 1893, declared that the United States could not 
control the Bering Sea fisheries; yet the United States 

1 In 1917, fifty-two years after the close of the War of Secession, 
few of the soldiers of that war were surviving; yet the average amount 
of each pension had been so much increased, and so many relatives of 
these soldiers had been added to the pension roll, that the number of 
pensioners in that year was nearly a million, all of whom except about 
thirty thousand drew pensions on account of the War of Secession 
The amount expended in 1917 for pensions was 1138,890,088.64, or 
about $380.000 a day. 


GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS 


419 


gained what it desired, for the commission made regulations 
for the protection of the seals, which became binding on 
both the United States and Great Britain. 

For many years there had been a dispute between Great 
Britain and Venezuela concerning the boundary between 
British Guiana and Venezuela. Although Venezuela wished 
to submit the matter to arbitration, and the United States 
advised such a course, the British government refused to 
arbitrate. From time to time Great Britain pushed its 
boundary line farther into territory claimed by Venezuela. 
President Cleveland, holding that the action of Great Britain 
was contrary to the Monroe Doctrine (see page 253), in 
1895 asked Congress for authority to appoint a commission 
to ascertain the true boundary between Venezuela and 
British Guiana, and recommended that the United States 
insist upon the acceptance of the commission’s finding. 
Congress authorized the appointment of the commission, 
and war clouds for a while hung over the two great English- 
speaking countries, for unless Great Britain should accept 
this or some other satisfactory plan of settling the question, 
it did not seem possible to avoid hostilities. The British 
people did not want war with their kindred across the At¬ 
lantic, and more than two hundred members of parliament 
signed a petition asking that the question be submitted to 
arbitration. The British government yielded and the com¬ 
mission of arbitration settled the dispute in favor of Great 
Britain. The submission to arbitration of so many questions 
of dispute between the United States and Great Britain 
(see page 385) has promoted the good will between the two 
English-speaking countries. 

The Panic of 1893 . — When Cleveland came to the Presi¬ 
dency for the second time, the country was facing a panic 
which had been coming on for some years. Business had 
been prosperous, but there arose in the commercial centers 
a doubt concerning the value of the money in use. The 
quantity of paper money had been increased, and fear 
arose lest the government should not be able to redeem 


^20 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

all of it in gold. People hastened to exchange their paper 
money for gold before all the gold in the treasury should 
become exhausted. They withdrew their deposits from the 
banks. Gold thus secured was hoarded. Money became 
so scarce that banks failed and factories closed. Much 
suffering followed among the thousands thrown out of em* 
ployment. 

Many believed that gold was too scarce a metal to be 
the sole basis of money, and argued that the distress would 
be relieved if the government would coin into money, free 
of charge to the owner, all silver presented at the treasury 
at the ratio of sixteen to one. 1 This demand for the “free 
and unlimited coinage of silver” was opposed by others 
who did not believe that two metals could be successfully 
used as standards for money. As suffering from the panic 
continued, the money question became the subject of heated 
discussion in the newspapers and among the people. 

The Pullman Strike. — Meanwhile strikes were furthei 
disarranging business. In some of the strikes there were 
rioting and loss of life. The most formidable strike at 
this time occurred in Chicago in 1894. The wages of the 
employees of the Pullman Car Company’s works at Pullman, 
a suburb of Chicago, had been reduced. The strike grew 
out of the refusal of the company to restore the wages to 
the former scale. The employees urged the company to 
submit the matter to arbitration; committees of disinterested 
citizens also advised arbitration, but the invariable reply 
was, “The company has nothing to arbitrate.” The strikers 
from the Pullman Company belonged to a labor organization 
known as the American Railway Union, which included in its 
membership a large number of the employees of the different 
roads. The members of the Union made common cause 
with the Pullman strikers and refused to handle trains to 
which Pullman cars were attached. The boycott effected 
the running of trains on nearly every railroad west of Ohio. 

1 That is, for every ounce in the gold dollar there should be sixteen 
ounces in the silver dollar. 


GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS 


421 


The President Sends Troops to Chicago. — Since the 
stoppage of traffic interfered with the mails and inter-state 
commerce, President Cleveland ordered United States 
troops to Chicago to protect the running of trains. Lives 
were lost in collisions between the troops and the strikers. 
Finally the strike collapsed, though not until the lawless 
element had destroyed much property. The total loss to 
railroads in earnings and property and to the strikers in 
wages exceeded eight million dollars. 

McKinley Elected President. — In the election of 1896 
the money question was the leading issue. The Democrats 
advocated “free silver”— 
that is, the free and unlimited 
coinage of silver at the ratio 
of sixteen to one; the Repub¬ 
licans opposed unless the 
other great nations would 
also agree to coin silver at the 
same ratio. The Democrats 
nominated William J. Bryan 
of Nebraska for President; 
the Republicans nominated 
William McKinley of Ohio. 

The campaign was one of the 
most exciting that the 
country has ever experienced. 

In the intense interest aroused by the money question other 
issues were almost completely lost sight of. McKinley, the 
gold standard candidate, was elected by a large majority. 

Within a few years gold was discovered in such large 
quantities in Alaska, Australia, and other parts of the 
world, that there was no longer a question of there being 
enough of that metal to furnish the currency, and the 
demand for “free silver” passed away. 



William McKinley 



422 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


Topics and Questions 

1. When did the “spoils system” in the United States begin? 
What were its evils? Was President Grant directly or indirectly 
responsible for the corruption that was rife in his administration? 
How did the “Whiskey Ring” defraud the United States government? 
How did the “Tweed Ring” defraud New York City? What is meant 
by “grafting ” ? 

2. Who improved the civil service by appointing men to office 
through merit and not through “pulls”? What lesson had the nation 
learned from the assassination of President Garfield? State the 
duties of the Civil Service Commission. 

3. Give an account of President Cleveland’s record to show that 
he was a reformer. What caused continued unrest in the business 
world? What was the need of the Interstate Commerce Act? Ac¬ 
count for the great riot in Chicago in 1886. 

4. How was the government accumulating more money in the 
treasury than it needed? What was President Cleveland’s plan for 
reducing this surplus? Why was Cleveland defeated for the Presidency 
in 1888? 

5. What did the Republicans do about the tariff in 1890? How 
did they increase the pension roll in the same year? How did the 
people show in the election of 1892 that they disapproved of the course 
taken by the Republicans? 

6. What was the object and the result of arbitration over the 
Bering Sea fisheries? What was the object and the result of arbi¬ 
tration over the Venezuela boundary? 

7. Describe the panic of 1893. What trouble did the Pullman 
strike of 1894 make for all the West? On what grounds did President 
Cleveland interfere? 

8. What was the main issue in the presidential election of 1896? 
Who won? 

Project Exercises 

1. Ascertain, if you can, what- kind of an examination the Civil 
Service Commission gives an applicant to test his fitness for office. 

2. Why did President Cleveland think that Great Britain’s action 
regarding the Venezuelan boundary was a violation of the Monroe 
Doctrine? (See page 253.) 

3. Mention some of the purposes for which you think arbitration 
should be employed. 


CHAPTER XXXVIII 

EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 1 

The United States and Europe. — In the three quarters 
of a century and more that had passed since the close of the 
second war with Great Britain, the United States had not 
been entangled in the political affairs of Europe. Such 
questions as had arisen between the United States and 
European countries had not been so serious as to prevent 
their being settled through negotiation or arbitration. 

Yet the whole world was coming into closer contact. 
The railroad, the steamboat, the telegraph, and the ocean 
cable were making communication easier, while the growth 
of manufacturing and other industries was bringing about 
a keen rivalry among nations for the trade of foreign mar¬ 
kets. One of the most active competitors for the commerce 
of the world was the United States. Americans could no 
longer be indifferent to the happenings of the world. 

Democracy and Nationality. — The French Revolution 
had spread the spirit of democracy through continental 
Europe, and the Napoleonic wars which followed had 
spread the spirit of nationality. Briefly defined, nationality 
is the belief that every nation, however small, has a right 
to its own government. 

The Congress of Vienna. — However, at the time of the 
overthrow of Napoleon I autocracy still had the upper hand 
in Europe. Emperors, kings, and princes met in a congress 
at Vienna (1814-1815) for the purpose of restoring the 
balance of power which Napoleon had upset when he con¬ 
quered so great a part of Europe. The conquered territory 
was to be divided, and each monarch schemed to get for 
himself as large a share as possible. Monarchs had in the 

1 This chapter need not be learned as a lesson. Teacher and class 
may read it together. 


423 


424 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

past seized lands of helpless nations, and those gathered 
at Vienna could see no reason why they should refuse to take 
what they could get merely because the people were be¬ 
ginning to talk about their rights. Thus it came about 
that in the remaking of the map of Europe by the Congress 
of Vienna small nations were once more annexed to larger 
ones. Peoples were placed against their wishes under the 
rule of other peoples who differed from them in race, lan¬ 
guage, religion, custom, and tradition. 

The Quadruple Alliance. — The Congress of Vienna had 
hardly adjourned when revolutions began. If the revolu¬ 
tionists were of a race different from their rulers, they usually 
fought for independence; if of the same race, they usually 
fought for a constitution giving them a share in the govern¬ 
ment and for free speech, free press, and trial by jury. • 

Alarmed at the growth of the revolutionary movement 
the autocratic monarchs, headed by the czar of Russia, the 
emperor of Austria, and the king of Prussia, formed the 
Quadruple Alliance, an agreement whereby each monarch 
promised to help with his armies a fellow monarch whose 
subjects should rise against him. In this effort to suppress 
democracy Great Britain refused to join. 1 

Although successful in putting down some of the earlier 
revolutions, the Quadruple Alliance did not hold together 
long because of the jealousies of the monarchs. Each 
autocrat thereafter depended mainly upon the strength of 
his own armies to keep his subjects in check. 

Countless thousands lost their lives in the many battles 
fought for liberty. The survivors of an unsuccessful revo¬ 
lution fared hard. The leaders were imprisoned and often 
executed or sent into exile, and the inhabitants of the re¬ 
bellious territory were subjected to greater tyranny than 
before. Many patriots voluntarily left their native land to 
escape punishment or because they were unwilling longer 

1 It was because of the belief that the Quadruple Alliance contem¬ 
plated attacking the democracies of America that President Monroe 
issued his famous Doctrine (see page 252). 


EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 425 

to live under such despotism. Yet, in the face of adversities, 
democracy grew stronger. 

Revolutions in France. — Only the most important revo¬ 
lutions need be considered here, and it is proper to begin 
with those of France, for that country long continued to be 
the center of revolutionary movements. When Napoleon I 
was driven from France, Louis XVIII, brother of the king 
who was beheaded in the great Revolution, was placed 
by the other powers on the French throne. Louis XVIII 
was wise enough to know that the conditions that existed 
in France before the Revolution, when the king had all 
the power and the people had none, could not be brought 
back. He ruled France under a constitution which he him¬ 
self granted and which allowed the people some rights. 
When his brother, Charles X, who succeeded him on the 
throne, attempted in 1830 to do away with the constitution 
and rule as a despot, the people of Paris rose in revolution 
and forced him to abdicate. 

The National Assembly, acting for the people, then chose 
as king Louis Philippe, a member of the younger branch 
of the royal house, who was made to promise to preserve 
the constitution. Louis Philippe was at heart greedy 
of power, and when in 1848 the people sought to secure for 
themselves a larger share of the government, he tried to 
thwart them. Thereupon the inhabitants of Paris again 
rose in revolution and drove him from the throne. 

This time France established a republic. Louis Napoleon 
Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I, was elected president. 
Only four years had passed (1852) when Louis Napoleon 
persuaded the French people, as his uncle had done, to 
elect him emperor. He took the title of Napoleon III. 

Meanwhile France, like England and the United States, 
was making great, advancement industrially. Napoleon III, 
of course, had little to do with bringing about the changes, 
but the contentment that prosperity brought the French 
people during his reign enabled him to hold the throne longer 
than he would probably have otherwise done. 


426 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNi'iED STATES 

Neutrality of Belgium. — The Congress of Vienna had 
annexed to the kingdom of Holland the country known as 
Belgium. The Dutch government treated Belgium so 
unjustly that when news of the success of the revolution 
of 1830 in France reached the Belgians, they rose in revolt. 
Defeating the forces of the Dutch sent against them, they 
declared their independence of Holland and set up for them¬ 
selves a monarchy with a constitution protecting the rights 
of the people. The autocratic monarchies of Austria and 
Russia wished to force Belgium back into the union with 
Holland, but the more liberal governments of Great Britain 
and France forbade interference with Belgian affairs. 

Later all the great powers signed a treaty guaranteeing 
that Belgium should always be a neutral country. Each 
power was pledged not to invade Belgium with an army, 
and Belgium was pledged to resist invasion if one should 
occur. 

Reforms of Great Britain. — Great Britain had long before 
had her revolutions. It will be remembered that for their 
attempts to take away the people’s rights Charles I had been 
beheaded in 1649 and James II had been driven from the 
throne in 1688, and that after the dethronement of the latter 
monarch parliament had become supreme. But it will also 
be remembered that for many years that body had not 
properly represented the people. (See page 115.) About 
the time of the American Revolution agitation began for 
the reformation of parliament. Nothing was accomplished, 
however, until 1832, when parliament passed the Reform 
Bill, which greatly increased the number of persons allowed 
the ballot and at the same time so distributed the seats in 
parliament as to give each community more equal represen¬ 
tation. Other acts enlarging the franchise were passed until 
now suffrage in Great Britain is practically universal. 

These reforms, making the British government one of the 
most democratic in the world, did not come in a short space 
of time; in fact, some were enacted within recent years. 
They were gained only by continual agitation by the people; 


EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 427 

for the upper classes, who did not think the masses were 
competent to vote intelligently, were often able to defeat 
for a time bills for extending the franchise. 

Contrary to the fears of the upper classes, the extension 
of the franchise has strengthened the government, because 
it has made the masses more contented. Through the 
influence of their votes the masses have secured better 
conditions for themselves. More laws have been passed 
by Great Britain for the benefit of the working people than 
by any other country of Europe. 

Revolutions in Russia. — Before the time of Napoleon I 
the ancient kingdom of Poland had been divided between 
Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Whether under Russian, 
Prussian, or Austrian rule, the Poles were oppressed. En¬ 
couraged by the success of the revolution of 1830 in France, 
the Russian Poles arose against the tyranny of the 
czar; but the overwhelming power of Russia crushed the 
revolt. In 1863 the Poles made another unsuccessful 
attempt to throw off the Russian yoke. 

Not only the Poles and other subject races, but the Russian 
people themselves suffered from oppressive government. 
Since all power centered in the czar, even the upper classes 
had no political rights; yet the hand of despotism fell 
heaviest upon the laborers in the cities and upon the peas¬ 
antry. The condition of the peasants, who constitute by 
far the greater part of the population, is to this day deplor¬ 
able. Until 1861 the peasants were serfs, and they continue 
to be the most ignorant and most miserable people of Europe. 

Toward the end of the nineteenth century Russia reached 
a state of terrorism to be followed, with the opening of the 
twentieth century, by many clashes between the government 
and the people in which the lives of thousands of revolution¬ 
ists were lost. 

Revolutions in Austria. — The revolution of 1848 in 
France found its echo in the Austrian empire, which contained 
more nationalities than any other country of Europe. The 
Austrians proper (Germans), the Hungarians (Magyars), the 


428 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Bohemians (Slavs), and Italians who were subjects of Austria, 
all rose in revolution against the Austrian government. 
Unfortunately the revolutionists of the different nationalities 
did not unite, and the uprisings were put down. 

In 1867 the government, finding that it needed the good 
will of the Austrian and Hungarian peoples to strengthen 
the empire, granted a kind of constitution under which the 
Austrians and Hungarians had equal rights and under which 
these two nationalities controlled all the others. It was then 
that the empire became known as Austria-Hungary. 1 

Since the Austrians and Hungarians combined constituted 
only a minority, and since they gave the other nationalities 
scant justice, Austria became an empire of jarring peoples, 
all jealous of one another and most of them wishing to be 
independent of Austrian rule. 

Unification of Italy. — Napoleon I had brought the 
Italian peninsula under his sway. After his downfall the 
Congress of Vienna divided Italy, giving a large section of 
the northern part to Austria and the rest of the peninsula 
to rulers who were under the influence of Austria and whc 
were as autocratic as the Austrian ruler himself. The 
Italians, little liking the disposition made of them, almost 
immediately began revolutions. They met at first with no 
success. 

In time there came to the throne of Sardinia — a kingdom 
composed of the island of Sardinia and a part of the mainland 
of northern Italy — Charles Albert, who was an exception to 
the despots ruling in Italy. Charles Albert gave his people 
a constitution guaranteeing their rights. Naturally the 
oppressed in other parts of Italy looked to this Sardinian 
king to free them from the Austrian and other autocratic 
rulers and unite all Italy into one nation. 

Charles Albert aided the Austrian provinces of Italy in 
their unsuccessful revolution of 1848. Overcome by failure 
to free his fellow Italians, he resigned the throne of Sardinia 

1 For convenience, however, the empire continued to be spoken of 
&s Austria. 


EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 


429 


co his son, Victor Emanuel II. The new king preserved 
the constitution that his father had given the Sardinian 
people, and he cherished his father’s ambition to liberate 
Italy. He called to his assistance one of the ablest and 
most honorable of the statesmen of the times, Count Cavour, 
whom he made prime minister. He also had a faithful 
lieutenant in Garibaldi, a soldier patriot. 

Two wars between Sardinia and Austria resulted in free¬ 
ing from Austrian rule Lombardy and Venetia, large 
provinces in northern Italy. Another war overthrew the 
tyrannical ruler of Naples, a kingdom that embraced the 
southern half of the Italian peninsula. Encouraged by 
the success of Sardinia, other Italian states secured control 
of their governments. By 1870 most of Italy had joined 
Sardinia in forming the kingdom of Italy with Victor 
Emanuel II as king. The liberal constitution of Sardinia 
was retained for the kingdom of Italy, and under its 
provisions the Italians are living to-day. 

We speak of Italy from the year 1870 as united; yet there 
remained under the rule of Austria a portion of northeast 
Italy, called by the Italians Italia Irredenta , “Italy un¬ 
redeemed.” In this region are the Italian cities of Trent, 
Trieste, and Pola. The Italians of Italy “redeemed” 
and of Italy “unredeemed” never ceased to wish to be 
reunited. 

Germany Divided into States. — Germany in the early 
nineteenth century was not a nation, for it was divided into 
more than thirty states, many very small; though the largest 
states, Austria and Prussia, had long ranked among the 
strong powers of Europe. The German states were united, 
for the management of general affairs, in a loose confeder¬ 
ation with Austria at its head. The states retained their 
independence, and with few exceptions their rule was 
autocratic. 

Otto von Bismarck. — William I, king of Prussia, an 
autocrat, in 1862 called Pripce Otto von Bismarck to 
assist him in governing. Bismarck was as much a believer 


430 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

in autocracy as was his king and was a more forceful man. 
He was of iron will and ruthless in his contempt of the 
rights of the people. Where the king might hesitate to 
exercise his authority for fear of offending the people, 
Bismarck urged him on. 

Bismarck’s ambition was to unite Germany into one 
empire that would be the strongest nation of Europe. The 
Prussian king would be emperor, and, through his influence 
over his sovereign, Bismarck would control the affairs of 
Europe. The temper of the people suited Bismarck’s plans. 
The Germans were never deeply imbued with the democratic 
feeling; they cared more for uniting their country into a 
nation than for securing popular rights. Revolutions that 
convulsed other parts of Europe had found echo in Germany 
only in a few small uprisings. 

The Policy of “ Blood and Iron.” — Yet Bismarck, hav¬ 
ing no faith in the ability of the people to bring the 
union about, relied solely on military power. As he 
expressed it, the union could be accomplished only by 
“blood and iron.” Bismarck’s first thought, therefore, was 
to strengthen the army. Prussia had already adopted the 
conscription plan for keeping up a standing army. Every 
able-bodied young man was required to serve in the army 
for a certain number of years, and be ready during an¬ 
other period of years to rejoin the army in time of war. 
Bismarck increased the army by extending the period of 
service, and, with able generals, welded it into a splendid 
fighting machine. 

Prussia then, under guidance of Bismarck, made war on 
Denmark and took from this weak neighbor two provinces 
needed to extend Prussia’s coast line to the Atlantic. Next, 
to get rid of Austria as head of the German Confederation, 
war was declared against that country in 1866, Bismarck 
having first persuaded Italy to join in the hostilities against 
her old enemy (see page 427). The Austrian army, no 
match for the well-organized German army, was quickly 
defeated. In the treaty of peace Austria ceded Venetia 


EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 431 

to Italy and agreed to relinquish her right to take part in 
the affairs of Germany. Bismarck shrewdly exacted of 
Austria no harsher terms. He knew that Prussia would 
have to hurl France from the place she had so long held 
as the foremost military power of Europe before his ambition 
could be realized; and in a war with France he desired to 
retain Austria’s friendship. 

Bismarck’s high-handed method was again shown by his 
forcibly annexing to Prussia states of northern Germany 
that had favored Austria. With the remaining states of 
northern Germany he formed a new league, known as the 
North German Confederation, with the king of Prussia as 
president. The states of southern Germany, uneasy over 
Prussia’s aggressions, held aloof from the new confedera¬ 
tion, but Bismarck, by making them believe that France 
had designs upon their territory, succeeded in getting them 
to make an alliance to help Prussia in case that country 
should have a war with France. 

The Franco-Prussian War.—With all Germany thus 
united in a military alliance, Bismarck, by practicing a 
deception, provoked France into a war in 1870. As France 
was unprepared for war disaster soon befell her. One of her 
armies was captured at Sedan and another was penned up 
in Metz. After a siege of four months, Paris surrendered 
(1871), and with the fall of the French capital the war 
came to a close. 

Germany Becomes an Empire and France a Republic. — 

Meanwhile both belligerent countries had changed their 
forms of government. Napoleon III had been captured 
with his army at Sedan, and when news of his capture reached 
Paris the populace demanded that France be made a re¬ 
public. The National Assembly consented. Thus amid 
the thunders of war was established the Third Republic, 1 

1 The First Republic of France lasted from the Revolution to the 
election of Napoleon I as emperor (1789-1804). The Second Republic 
lasted from the overthrow of Louis Philippe to the election of Nap©* 
leon III as emperor (1848-1852). 


432 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

the government under which France has continued to the 
present time. 

The German armies were still besieging Paris when the 
rulers of the South German states joined those composing 
the North German Confederation in forming all Germany 
into an autocratic empire. In 1871, at Versailles, in the 
palace of the former kings of France, William, king of 
Prussia, was proclaimed emperor, or kaiser, under the title 
of William I. Bismarck became chancellor, as the prime 
minister of Germany was called. 

Thus it came about that a war begun between the Prus¬ 
sian kingdom and the French empire was closed by a treaty 
between the German empire and the French republic. 

Harsh Terms of Peace. — Very hard terms of peace were 
imposed, for Bismarck wished to reduce France to a second 
rate power. France was required to pay a heavy indem¬ 
nity and to give up to Germany the provinces of Alsace 
and Lorraine. Bismarck’s ambition had been attained. 
Germany had taken the place of France as the strongest 
military nation, and he had become the foremost 
personage of Europe. Contrary to Bismarck’s expec¬ 
tations, however, France did not long remain prostrate. 
Her thrifty population enabled her to pay off the indemnity 
in a very short time, and her resourcefulness soon restored 
her to a place among the powers. 

The inhabitants of Alsace and Lorraine cried out in 
bitter protest against being torn from France, and the 
French people never became reconciled to the loss of the 
provinces. Their violent wrenching away made a “running 
sore in the side of France.” 

The Turks Oppress Christians. — The Balkan peninsula, 
as the southeastern peninsula of Europe is called, had for 
many centuries been under the rule of the Turks, an Asiatic 
race of the Mohammedan faith, who make their capital 
at Constantinople. Turkish treatment of Christian sub¬ 
jects had been an unbroken record of diabolical cruelty. 
During the nineteenth century the Balkan country was the 


EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 


433 


scene of many massacres of the Christian peoples by their 
Turkish masters and revolts of Christians attempting to 
escape their desperate condition. 

The Turks Protected by the Great Powers. — Turkey 
in Europe was a blot upon European civilization which 
could have been wiped out had it not been for the 
jealousies of the great nations. The powers feared to let 
one of their number drive the Turks out of the Balkan 
country lest that power should gain control of the region. 
Nevertheless, Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Roumania, and 
Bulgaria succeeded, one by one, in throwing off the Turkish 
yoke. 

In a war between Russia and Turkey in 1877-1878 the 
Turks were about to be hurled back into Asia and their 
remaining territory in Europe divided among the Balkan 
states, when the powers interfered. At a congress of the 
powers held at Berlin, Great Britain and Austria suc¬ 
ceeded in saving for Turkey much of her territory in 
Europe. Germany, under the guidance of Bismarck, 
supported Austria. The Congress of Berlin left many 
bitter heart burnings among the Balkan peoples, and it 
caused Russia, hitherto friendly to Germany, to feel strong 
resentment against that country. 

Democracy and Autocracy. — Though all the countries of 
Europe, except republican France and Switzerland, con¬ 
tinued to be monarchies, most of them had by the close of 
the nineteenth century become sufficiently democratic to 
allow the people a considerable share in the government. 1 
The leading nations that clung to autocratic government 
were Russia, Germany, Austria, and Turkey; and it was 
mainly in these countries that subject nationalities continued 
to be oppressed. 

The European Colonial System. — Great Britain main¬ 
tained her position as the leading colonial power, having 
colonies on every continent and on islands in every ocean. 
The vastness of her colonial possessions has given rise to 
1 Portugal became a republic in JjQIO. 


434 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

the saying that “the sun never sets on the British do¬ 
minions.” The growth of the democratic spirit in Great 
Britain has put an end to the unjust colonial policy that 
brought about the independence of the United States. 
Great Britain now gives her colonies as much self-govern¬ 
ment as they are fitted for. No people are more satisfied 
with their government than the Canadians, the Australians, 
and the New Zealanders, though they are subjects of the 
British king. 

Next to Great Britain as a colonial power comes France, 
which also has colonies in all parts of the world. The 
other European nations that had colonial possessions 
in the nineteenth century are Russia, Holland, Belgium, 
Denmark, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Germany. 

The industrial progress that everywhere marked the 
latter part of the nineteenth century led many countries 
to manufacture more products than they could consume; 
and colonies became increasingly important because they 
furnished ready markets for the excess products. Germany, 
entering the colonial field last, found most of the land suit¬ 
able for colonization already taken over by other nations. 
She was able to establish a few colonies in Africa and on 
some of the small islands of the distant Pacific, and to secure 
a seaport in China. But these holdings Germany did not 
think commensurate to her greatness. She looked with 
longing eyes upon the colonies of other nations; and she 
especially envied Great Britain her vast colonial possessions. 

Standing Armies and the Balance of Power. — The 
German empire continued the Prussian practice of main¬ 
taining a large, well organized, standing army, and since 
the Germans had shown that they would put their army to 
agressive use, other nations also were compelled in self- 
defense to maintain large armies. 

Bismarck sought to strengthen still further Germany’s 
military power through alliances. He could not expect 
friendship with France on account of the wrongful seizure 
of Alsace and Lorraine, and he had estranged Russia by 


EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 43 s 

thwarting her efforts to drive the Turks from the Balkans. 
Taking advantage of Austria’s jealousy of Russia and Italy’s 
jealousy of France, Bismarck was able to form in 1882 an 
alliance, known as the Triple Alliance, between Germany, 
Austria, and Italy. Each member of the alliance agreed 
to go to the aid of another member if attacked by two 
powers. The Triple Alliance left France and Russia iso¬ 
lated; therefore, they formed a similar alliance known as 
the Dual Alliance. 

The balance of power created by the two alliances served 
to preserve the peace of Europe for some years, for as long 
as the alliances were about equal in strength no one country 
would risk provoking war. Still, as the old hatreds of the 
nations were being fanned to greater heat by the growing 
commercial rivalry, the danger of war was always present; 
Bo the nations kept on increasing their armaments. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Explain why the United States cannot be indifferent to the 
happenings of the world. 

2. Tell the story of how emperors, kings, and princes gathered at 
Vienna in 1814, for the purpose of dividing among themselves lands that 
did not belong to them. Tell how people gave up their lives that their 
countries might be free. 

3. Describe the revolutions in France in 1830 and 1848. How did 
Napoleon III become emperor of the French? What were the con¬ 
ditions in France that enabled him to continue on the throne? 

4. What is meant by the neutrality of Belgium? How did Great 
Britain become one of the most democratic of nations? Recount 
the revolutions in Russia. In Austria. Recite the facts leading to 
the unification of Italy. Define Italia Irredenta. 

5. Give an account of Bismarck’s highhanded methods for making 
Prussia the leading state of Germany, and for making Germany the 
leading country of Europe. Tell how he prepared to make war on 
France. In what condition was France for war? How did the Franco- 
Prussian War end? Tell how Germany became an empire and France 
a republic. Describe the harsh terms imposed upon France by Ger¬ 
many. What was Bismarck’s purpose in imposing such harsh terms? 
Was France kept in the prostrate condition that Bismarck hoped? 
Why was the seizure of Alsace and Lorraine a “running sore in the 
side of France”? 


436 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


6. Describe the sufferings inflicted by the Turks upon the Christians 
of the Balkan peninsula. Why had the Turks been allowed to stay 
in Europe so long? What effect did the Congress of Berlin have? 

7. What republics were there in Europe at the end of the nineteenth 
century? Had most of the monarchies become more or less demo¬ 
cratic? Which countries were still autocratic? 

8. Describe the European colonial system. Why did Germany 
have so few colonies? What nation’s colonial system did Germany 
envy the most? Which country of Europe began the practice of main¬ 
taining a large standing army? Define Triple Alliance. Dual Al¬ 
liance. Why was war imminent in Europe at the end of the nineteenth 
century? 

Project Exercises 

1. Can a monarchy also be a democracy? Give an illustration. 

2. Did the Monroe Doctrine check a design of the Quadruple 
Alliance? If so, what design? (See page 251.) 

3. Did the revolutions in Europe in the nineteenth century have the 
same object as our Revolution in the eighteenth century? 

Important Dates: 

1814-1815. Congress of Vienna. 

1830 and 1848. Revolutions in France and other countries of Europe,, 

1832. Reforming of the British parliament begun. 

1870. Unification of Italy. 

1870-1871. Franco-Prussian War. 

1871. Formation of the German Empire. 


CHAPTER XXXIX 

WAR WITH SPAIN 

The Policy of Spain toward her Colonies. — By 1825 
Spain had lost, through mismanagement, all her colonial 
possessions in America except Cuba, Porto Rico, and some 
smaller islands in the West Indies (see page 249). There 
had been frequent insurrections in Cuba, but Spain, heed¬ 
less of the lesson which the loss of other territory should 
have taught, continued to oppress the island. The Spanish 
government fixed the rate of taxes to be paid by the Cubans, 
and spent in Spain almost all the revenue derived from these 
taxes. The people had little voice in their government; 
as a rule the officials were men sent over from Spain. Few 
public improvements were made, and there was no proper 
development of the island. 

The Cuban Insurgents. — In 1895 Cubans once more 
rose in insurrection. They avoided open battle, but, divid¬ 
ing into small bands, fought frequent skirmishes with the 
government forces. Nearly all the rural population were 
suspected of furnishing the insurgents with supplies, and 
of keeping them informed of the movements of the Spanish 
troops. In order to deprive the insurgents of this aid, 
Weyler, the captain-general of Cuba, began in 1896 to de¬ 
stroy houses and crops, and to drive the inhabitants into 
reconcentration camps in the neighborhood of cities and 
towns. Men, women, and children were herded in these 
camps, where they were closely guarded by soldiers. They 
were given insufficient food and shelter, and no precaution 
was taken against the spread of disease. By the spring of 
1897 three hundred thousand persons had been collected in 
the camps, and more than half of them had died. Still 
the war went on. The Spaniards could not conquer the 

437 


438 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

( 

insurgents, and the insurgents could not drive the Spaniards 
from the island. 

Relations of the United States with Cuba. — The people 
of the United States could not be indifferent to conditions 
in Cuba. The island lies but a little more than a hundred 
miles from Florida. So long as it was held by a foreign 
power it might, in time of war, become a source of danger 
as a base for the enemy’s operations. Besides, through 
Spain’s neglect of sanitary precautions, yellow fever in¬ 
fested the seaports, whence the disease was often brought 
to the coast of the Southern states. 


Commerce between the United States and Cuba was 
seriously affected by every insurrection that occurred on 



U. S. Battleship “ Maine ” 


the island. Furthermore, Americans had invested largely 
in Cuban industries, especially in sugar plantations. Spam’s 
policy of laying waste the island in order to put down the 
insurrection brought ruin to much American property. 

But over and above these considerations, the American 
people had a genuine sympathy with the Cubans in their 
struggle for liberty and an abhorrence of the Spanish mode 
of warfare. Popular demand was strong for the United 
States to give some kind of aid to the insurgents. Presi¬ 
dent Cleveland and then President McKinley endeavored 
to bring about a peaceful solution of the Cuban question, 
but without success. 

Explosion of the Maine. — Early in 1898 the United 






WAR WITH SPAIN 


439 


States battleship Maine went on a friendly visit to 
Havana. At night, while lying at anchor in the harbor, 
the vessel was blown up and nearly three hundred of its 
officers and men met their death. “A wave of fierce wrath 
swept over the American people.” While there was nothing 
to show that the Spanish government was in any way re¬ 
sponsible for the disaster, the people of the United States 
believed that Spaniards had blown up the ship. “Remember 
the Maine! ” was heard all over the country, and the angered 
people demanded that the United States put an end to 
Spanish rule in Cuba. Of course, for the United States to 
interfere would mean war, and President McKinley, wish¬ 
ing to avoid war if possible, again tried to find a peaceful 
solution of the Cuban question. But his efforts were vain. 
Spain would not consent to the independence of Cuba, and 
the people of the United States would be satisfied with 
nothing else. 

War with Spain. — Meanwhile the conditions in Cuba 
grew worse. As President McKinley expressed it, they had 
become “intolerable.” Therefore, on April n, 1898, the 
President sent a message to Congress, in which he said, 
“In the name of humanity, in the name of civilization, and 
in behalf of the endangered American interests which give 
us the right and the duty to speak and to act, the war in 
Cuba must stop.” He asked Congress for power to put an 
end to the war on the island and to establish for the Cubans 
a stable government. In answer to the President’s message, 
Congress passed resolutions in effect as follows: (1) The 
people of Cuba are and of a right ought to be free and 
independent; (2) The government of the United States 
demands that Spain relinquish its authority over the island 
of Cuba and withdraw its forces therefrom; (3) The Presi¬ 
dent of the United States is directed and empowered to use 
the land and naval forces of the United States and the 
militia of the several states to carry into effect these reso¬ 
lutions; (4) The government of the United States disclaims 
any intention to secure control of Cuba, but when peace is 


440 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

restored to Cuba the government of the island shall be left 
to its people. Such was America’s ultimatum. Four 
days after Congress passed the resolutions (April 24), 
Spain declared war against the United States. The United 
States declared war on the following day. 

Increase of the Army. — At the outbreak of the war the 
regular army of the United States consisted of only about 
twenty-eight thousand men; and Congress authorized its 
increase to sixty-one thousand. The President called for 



Manila and the Pasig River 
S howing the Magellan monument 


a volunteer army of two hundred thousand men. No 
better evidence of the passing away of sectionalism is needed 
than the roll of the army raised for the war with Spain. 
Distinguished ex-Confederate officers received commissions; 
sons of men who wore the blue and sons of men who wore 
the gray marched side by side under the Stars and Stripes. 1 

The Naval Battle at Manila. — The first important 
engagement of the war took place in the far East. Com¬ 
modore (later Admiral) George Dewey, who commanded the 

^ 1 One of the volunteer cavalry regiments became famous as the 
“Rough Riders.” It was organized with Leonard Wood as colonel, 
and Theodore Roosevelt as lieutenant colonel. The regiment was com¬ 
posed mainly of cowboys from the West, though many young men of 
wealth from the East enlisted in its ranks. 






WAR WITH SPAIN 


441 


Asiatic squadron of the American navy, was ordered to 
capture or destroy the Spanish fleet in the Philippine Islands, 
an archipelago of the Pacific Ocean, then belonging to 
Spain. Early on the morning of May 1, the American 
fleet entered the harbor of Manila, the capital of the Philip¬ 
pines. There the Spanish fleet lay at anchor under the 
protection of forts. The guns of the Spaniards on the fleet 
and in the forts thundered away at the American vessels, 
but the marksmanship was poor. The Americans, hurling 
against the enemy a terrific volume of shot and shell, soon 
sunk or burned every Spanish 
ship and silenced every fort. 

Not an American vessel was 
seriously damaged. The Span¬ 
iards lost in killed and wounded 
more than six hundred men; 
the Americans had none killed 
and only eight wounded. As 
there was no army to support 
Dewey, he did not attempt to 
take the city, but blockaded the 
harbor and waited for troops to 
be sent to his assistance. 

Havana Blockaded.— 

Before hostilities had actually begun, the President, in pur¬ 
suance of the plan to drive the Spaniards from Cuba, had 
issued a proclamation declaring Havana and certain other 
Cuban ports in a state of blockade. An American fleet 
under command of acting Rear Admiral William T. Sampson 
had been sent to Cuban waters to enforce the blockade. 

Cervera’s Fleet Blockaded at Santiago. — News came 
that a Spanish fleet, under Admiral Cervera, was sailing 
westward across the Atlantic. For some time the location 
of the fleet was unknown and there was apprehension that 
it might bombard cities on the Atlantic. The coast from 
Maine to Florida was carefully watched by vessels of the 
American navy. At last it became known that Cervera’s 



George Dewey 


442 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


fleet had entered the harbor of Santiago de Cuba, at the 
southeastern end of the island of Cuba. Commodore (later 
Rear Admiral) Winfield S. Schley, acting under instructions 
from Sampson, immediately blockaded the port. Sampson 
himself soon arrived with other vessels and made the 
blockade more rigid. Meantime he 
awaited the arrival of troops needed 
to take the city. 1 

Land and Naval Battles of San¬ 
tiago.—In the summer an American 
army of seventeen thousand men, 
under General William R. Shatter, 
sailed on transports from Tampa, 
Florida, and landed on the Cuban 
shore a short distance east of San¬ 
tiago. The cavalry, led by General 
Joseph Wheeler, a soldier who had 
served with distinction in the Con¬ 
federate army, advanced and met the Spanish troops and 
drove them back to their line. The American army fol¬ 
lowed the march of the cavalry. The strongest positions 
on the Spanish line were the fortified town of El Caney 
and the hill of San Juan. On July i a. division of the 
American army attacked El Caney, while the main body 

1 The entrance to the harbor of Santiago is by a very narrow channel, 
the approach to which is protected by forts. In hope of closing the 
channel and preventing, at least temporarily, the escape of the Spanish 
fleet, Richmond Pearson Hobson, a lieutenant in the American navy, 
volunteered to sink a vessel across the mouth of the channel. The 
collier Merrimac was selected as the ship to be sunk. A few men 
picked from the scores of volunteers entered upon an undertaking that 
everybody thought meant almost certain death. One morning shortly 
before dawn they pushed the Merrimac into the narrow channel and 
blew her up with dynamite. As the vessel went down the crew clung 
to a raft. Although shells from the forts flew around them, none 
were hurt, for in the darkness the enemy’s fire had missed them. 
When daylight came Hobson and his men were rescued by a Spanish 
launch. The Merrimac sank lengthwise instead of crosswise, and 
consequently did not block the channel. 



Winfield Scott Schley 


WAR WITH SPAIN 


443 



assaulted San Juan. The Americans charged gallantly, 
and El Caney and San Juan were taken. Twice on the 
next day the Spaniards attacked, but were unable to drive 
the Americans from the ground from which they themselves 
had been driven. 

Foreseeing the fall of Santiago, Cervera, on the morning 
of July 3, dashed out of the harbor with his fleet, hoping 
that some of his vessels might 
escape. Just then, Sampson’s flag¬ 
ship was some miles distant from 
the rest of the fleet, for he was on 
his way to hold a conference with 
General Shatter. Schley, the senior 
officer in the absence of Sampson, 
signaled the fleet to clear for action 
and to close with the enemy. The 
American vessels lost no time in 
giving chase. It was a running, 
rapid fight. In less than four 
hours every one of the Spanish 
ships was a wreck. Three hundred and. fifty Spaniards 
were killed or drowned. Cervera and more than fifteen 
hundred of his officers and seamen were taken prisoners. 
The Americans had only one man killed and one wounded, 
and their ships suffered little damage. 

The Spanish commander in Santiago, seeing the hope¬ 
lessness of holding out longer, surrendered the city, with a 
large part of eastern Cuba and about twenty-four thousand 
soldiers, on July 17. 

Invasion of Porto Rico. — Late in July, General Nelson 
A.. Miles, commander-in-chief of the American army, in¬ 
vaded Porto Rico. Moving rapidly into the interior, his 
army was taking one town after another, when a protocol, 
or preliminary treaty of peace, was signed. Hostilities 
ceased immediately. 

Treaty of Peace. — Spain, through the French minister 
at Washington, had asked for peace, and the protocol was 


Joseph Wheeler 



444 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

signed on August 12. Before news of the cessation of hos¬ 
tilities could reach the Philippines, the American troops 
sent to Dewey’s assistance had captured Manila (August 13). 

A formal treaty of peace was signed at Paris on December 
10, 1898. By the treaty Spain agreed to evacuate Cuba and 
cede to the United States: (1) Porto Rico and other islands 
of the West Indies then under Spanish rule; (2) Guam, one 
of the Ladrone or Marianne Islands of the Pacific Ocean, 
which the United States had captured in the war; and 
(3) the Philippine Islands. The treaty provided that the 
United States should pay to Spain twenty million dollars. 
In the world which Columbus discovered for Spain the treaty 
left that country not one foot of territory. 

America’s Unpreparedness. — The total number of Ameri¬ 
cans killed and wounded in the Spanish War was very 
small — less than three hundred killed and less than sixteen 
hundred wounded. It was well that the war was waged 
against a weak nation and did not last long, for the United 
States entered it unprepared. The Navy Department had 
the navy in good condition, but the War Department fell 
short of expectations. The ammunition it issued was poor, 
the clothing unsuitable, and the food bad. Then again, 
on account of the smallness of the regular army, reliance 
had to be placed upon volunteers and the militia of the 
states. There was not time to train this force properly. 
Many of the officers came from civil life and also were 
without military training. The conditions surrounding 
the concentration camps were unsanitary. A great many 
more soldiers died in camp from preventable diseases than 
were killed and wounded in battle. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Summarize the policy of Spain toward her colonies. Give a 
brief account of the Cuban War for independence. Trace and state 
carefully the cause and the occasion of the war between the United 
States and Spain. 

2. What did President McKinley do to avert the Spanish War? 
Quote his message to Congress when Spain refused to grant independ- 


"WAR WITH SPAIN 


445 

ence to Cuba. State the four resolutions of Congress. What was 
Spain’s response to this ultimatum? 

3. How was an American army raised? Give an interesting de¬ 
tailed account of our navy’s splendid work in Manila Harbor. What 
was the object of blockading Havana? What Spanish admiral sailed 
with a fleet to American waters? Where did the Spanish fleet anchor, 
and what action did Admiral Sampson and Commodore Schley take? 

4. Why has Hobson been considered a hero? Was his mission 
successful? Give the details of the land battle of Santiago. What 
brought about the naval battle of Santiago? What was its result? 

5. Why did not General Miles complete his invasion of Porto Rico? 
What is a protocol? How did Manila fall into the hands of the Ameri¬ 
cans? State the terms of the treaty of peace with Spain. Describe 
America’s unpreparedness for war. 

Project Exercises 

1. Compare the causes of Cuba’s war for independence with the 
causes of the American Revolutionary War. 

2. Find on a map of the world all the countries and cities mentioned 
in the text. 

Important Date: 

1898. War with Spain, independence of Cuba, and acquisition by 
the United States of Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. 


CHAPTER XL 


THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER 

Results of the War with Spain. — Perhaps no war has 

ever been attended with a smaller loss of life than the one 
between the United States and Spain, yet the results of this 
war were wide reaching. Begun solely for the liberation 
of Cuba, it brought a great change of policy for the United 
States. Up to this time the republic of the United States 
had confined itself to the North American continent, and 
with the exception of Alaska, had acquired only contiguous 
territory, which could be settled by Americans and quickly 
made into states of the Union. As a result of the Spanish 
War the republic, like the nations of Europe, has reached 
out and acquired possessions in distant seas. 

Beyond carrying its trade to every comer of the earth 
and thus entering into commercial rivalry with other nations, 
the United States had hitherto held aloof from international 
affairs. The acquisition of foreign territory, giving us new 
interests and new responsibilities, brought our country into 
closer contact with world politics. The great western 
republic became a world power. 

The importance of the United States in international 
questions was quickly recognized by Europe. In fact, 
our interests in the world’s affairs were now such that the 
United States could not be kept from taking part in them. 
Immediately following the Spanish War the United States 
began to join with European nations in the settlement of 
international questions. From the first the influence of 
the United States has been great. 

Opposition to Expansion. — But the distant islands were 
not acquired without considerable opposition in the United 
States. Those who opposed the action of the government 

446 


THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER 


447 

in taking control of them did so on three grounds: (i) The 
inhabitants of the islands would never become fit for citizen¬ 
ship; (2) To govern them and not make them citizens 
would be contrary to the principles of the Declaration of 
Independence; (3) The holding of distant territory would 
involve the United States in the quarrels and wars of the 
powers of Europe. The opposition was chiefly directed 
against holding the Philippines. On the other hand, it 
was asserted that it was the duty of the United States to 
care for the lands and peoples falling to them as the result 
of the war; that it would be wrong to turn these people 
over to the misrule of Spain, or to leave them to govern 
themselves, when they were incapable of self-government. 
Those who advocated holding the islands were called expan¬ 
sionists, or imperialists; those who opposed were called 
anti-imperialists. In the contest in the Senate over the 
ratification of the treaty, which lasted two months, the 
expansionists won by a very close vote, the treaty having 
been ratified by only two more votes than were necessary. 

The Territories Received from Spain. — Of the posses¬ 
sions received from Spain, Porto Rico is nearest to our 
shores — about one thousand miles from Key West, Florida. 
This island has an area larger than Delaware, but smaller 
than Connecticut, and a population greater than both. 
The whites compose something more than half the popu¬ 
lation; the rest are negroes. The principal crops are sugar, 
coffee, tobacco, and maize. 

The Philippine archipelago lies off the southern coast of 
Asia, and is more than six thousand miles from San Fran¬ 
cisco. It consists of fifteen hundred or more islands, most 
of them small. The total area of the islands is estimated 
to be a little greater than that of Nevada. The population 
numbers about nine million, and is mostly of the Mala}^ 
type. Only about twenty thousand are whites. The 
largest island is Luzon, nearly double the size of New Eng¬ 
land. Manila, which is situated on this island, has a pop¬ 
ulation of about two hundred and sixty thousand, and one 


448 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

of the best harbors in the Pacific. The chief products of 
the Philippines are hemp, rice, com, sugar, tobacco, cocoa- 
nuts, and cocoa. 

Guam is situated in the Pacific in a direct line between 
San Francisco and the Philippines, being about five thousand 
miles from the former and about fifteen hundred miles from 
the latter. It has an area of about two hundred square 
miles and has about twelve thousand inhabitants. It is 
the largest of the Ladrone or Marianne Islands, and is 
settled mostly by people from the Philippines. The soil 
is fertile, producing rice, corn, tobacco, sugar cane, and 
cocoa, besides tropical fmits. 

Insurrection in the Philippines. — Although the natives of 
the Philippines did not like the rule of the Spaniards and 
had frequently rebelled against it, some of them objected 
to the taking over of their islands by the United States, 
and under the leadership of Don Emilio Aguinaldo they 
proclaimed a Philippine republic. Two days before the 
treaty between the United States and Spain was ratified 
by the Senate, a skirmish occurred between the insurgents 
and the American troops on the outskirts of Manila. War 
followed. Though there was no important battle, more 
than a thousand skirmishes occurred. The war was practi¬ 
cally ended in the spring of 1901, by the capture of Agui¬ 
naldo. The insurgents represented only a small minority 
of the people of the Philippines. 

Annexation of the Hawaiian Islands. — While the Spanish 
War was in progress, Hawaii, a group of islands situated in 
the Pacific Ocean, nearly three thousand miles southwest 
of San Francisco, had been annexed to the United States. 
A few years previously the white inhabitants, though few 
in number, had, on account of the unjust treatment accorded 
them, deposed the queen of the islands and taken charge of 
the government. They then asked for annexation to the 
United States. President Cleveland, who did not believe 
that the revolutionists represented the wishes of the ma¬ 
jority of the people of the islands, prevented annexation at 


THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER 


449 


the time. But the great naval battle of Manila drew at¬ 
tention to the importance of the Hawaiian Islands as a base 
for naval operations in the Pacific and Congress, in the 
summer of 1898, agreed to annexation. 

The Hawaiian Islands are twelve in number, and their 
total area is about equal to that of Connecticut and Rhode 
Island combined. The population is about two hundred 
and thirty thousand, mostly native Hawaiians, Chinese, 



and Japanese. The white population, though small as 
yet, is steadily increasing. Sugar is the main product. 
Rice, bananas, and wool are also produced. Honolulu, 
the chief city and capital, has a good harbor and a popu¬ 
lation of about fifty thousand. 

Other Acquisitions of Territory. — In 1899 the United 
States took possession of Wake Island. This is a small 
island in the Pacific, about two thousand miles west of 
Hawaii. The American flag had been raised on the island 
while the war with Spain was in progress. 

The United States, Great Britain, and Germany had 
for some years joined in a protectorate over the Samoan 
Islands, an archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean lying 
























450 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

in an almost direct line between San Francisco and Australia. 
In 1899 the three powers agreed upon a treaty whereby the 
United States acquired the island of Tutuila and five smaller 
islands, and Germany the rest. 

The six islands of the Samoan group that fell to the 
United States have a total area of about one third that of 
Rhode Island, and their population is about seven thousand. 
The inhabitants are of the Malay type. The chief products 
are copra, cotton, and coffee. TJie bay of Pago-Pago, on the 
island of Tutuila, is one of the finest harbors of the world. 

Eighteen years later (1917) the United States purchased 
from Denmark, for twenty-five million dollars, three small 
islands lying just east of Porto Rico and known as the 
Virgin Islands or the Danish West Indies. 

The Virgin Islands have a combined area of about twice 
the size of the District of Columbia. Their population is 
about thirty thousand, mostly negroes. The chief products 
are sugar, indigo, cotton, nuts, and salt. 

Congress has given territorial governments to Porto 
Rico, the Philippines, and Hawaii. The governments of 
Guam and of the Samoan and the Virgin Islands are ad¬ 
ministered by an officer of the United States navy. Wake 
Island is only one square mile in area and is uninhabited. 

The Republic of Cuba. — By the treaty with Spain, the 
United States agreed to establish self-government in Cuba. 
On January 1, 1899, Spain formally evacuated Cuba, and 
the United States thereupon placed a military government 
in charge, to continue until the island had sufficiently re¬ 
covered from the effects of the war for the people to set up 
a government for themselves. Under the careful adminis¬ 
tration of the United States military authorities, order was 
soon restored to Cuba; courts and schools were reopened, 
industries were revived, and the cities were cleansed and 
provided with a sewerage system that quickly prevented 
the scourge of disease, especially yellow fever. In 1901 the 
Cubans adopted a constitution for the new republic, and 
early in the following year the United States troops withdrew 


THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER 451 

from the island, leaving to the people the management of 
their own affairs. 

In withdrawing from Cuba, the United States retained 
a protectorate over the island. The constitution of the 
new government provides: (1) Cuba shall never make a 
treaty with another nation contrary to the interests of the 
United States; (2) Cuba shall never contract a debt that 
she cannot pay; (3) The United States shall have the right 
to intervene whenever necessary to restore order on the 
island. The last provision was included in the treaty 
because it was believed by many that the Cubans were not 
capable of governing themselves. It was a fortunate pro¬ 
vision because, in 1906, an insurrection broke out which 
the Cuban government could not put down. The United 
States was compelled to put th*e island once more under 
military government. After three years, it appearing that 
conditions had so improved that the Cubans could manage 
their affairs without outside assistance, the United States 
troops once more withdrew. 

McKinley’s Reelection; His Assassination. — At the 

election of 1900 McKinley was again the candidate of the 
Republicans, and William J. Bryan was again the candidate 
of the Democrats. The Republicans indorsed the adminis¬ 
tration’s policy toward the insular possessions. The Demo¬ 
crats denounced as imperialistic the policy of holding distant 
islands, and opposed the retention of the Philippines longer 
than necessary to give the islands a stable government. 
The people, approving the policy of expansion, reelected 
McKinley by a large majority. 

A few months after his second inauguration, President 
McKinley, while holding a reception at an exposition in 
Buffalo, was shot by an anarchist who had approached him 
under the pretense of desiring to shake his hand. The 
President lingered about a week, death occurring on Sep¬ 
tember 14, 1901. On the afternoon of that day Theodore 
Roosevelt of New York, the Vice President, assumed the 
duties of chief magistrate. 


452 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

The Isthmian Canal. — For many years the plan of 
constructing a canal through the narrow neck of land con¬ 
necting North America and South America had been of 
much interest to the people of the United States. It was 
realized that such a canal would be of great commercial 
value to the world, and especially to this country, since it 
would give sea-going vessels a route between the Atlantic 
and the Pacific coasts much shorter than the route by Cape 



Routes Passing Through the Panama Canal 


Horn. In the Spanish War the United States battleship 
Oregon made the long voyage around Cape Horn to get from 
the Pacific to the Atlantic waters. The suspense of the peo¬ 
ple, fearing that the Oregon would be attacked by the Spanish 
fleet before it could join the American fleet in the West 
Indies, caused every one to realize also the military value of 
an inter-oceanic canal. With the insistence that the canal 
be built went the demand that the United States govern¬ 
ment should control it, lest in time of war it should be used 
to the disadvantage of this country. Some favored the 
route across Nicaragua; others the route across Panama. 

The Panama Canal. — A French company had endeavored 








THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER 


453 


to construct a canal across Panama; but the company 
failed and the work was abandoned. A new company 
purchased the unfinished canal and offered to sell to the 
United States its franchises and property rights for forty 
million dollars. In 1902 Congress agreed to make the pur¬ 
chase from the French government and authorized Presi¬ 
dent Roosevelt to acquire from the Republic of Colombia, 
in which Panama was then a state, the right of way for the 
canal, and the control of a certain amount of adjacent 
territory. Early in 1903 a treaty was signed between the 
representatives of the United States and those of the Re¬ 
public of Colombia, whereby Colombia was to make the 
grants and to receive in return the sum of ten million dol¬ 
lars and after the expiration of nine years an annual rental 
of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. But the con¬ 
gress of Colombia rejected the treaty. 

The Republic of Panama. — The people of the state of 
Panama- were dissatisfied with the action of the Colombian 
congress, and in the autumn of 1903, the state was declared 
independent of Colombia. The withdrawal of Panama 
from the confederation of Colombia occurred without 
bloodshed, the United States landing troops to protect the 
transit of business across the isthmus. The new republic 
was recognized by the United States and other governments. 
A treaty was promptly made between Panama and the 
United States for the construction of the canal on the terms 
previously offered to Colombia. However, in addition to 
giving the United States sovereignty over the strip of land 
through which the canal passes, the treaty gives this coun¬ 
try a protectorate over the Republic of Panama. The 
United States guarantees the independence of Panama and 
has the right to intervene to keep order in the republic. 1 

1 The United States has extended a kind of protectorate over other 
neighboring countries. European nations have had much trouble in 
collecting debts due from weak Latin-American republics and in pro¬ 
tecting the lives and property of their subjects in these countries. 
President Roosevelt took the position that if the United States would. 


454 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


The Panama Canal Completed. — President Roose¬ 
velt immediately set about having the Panama Canal 
dug. Work was begun on this gigantic undertaking in 
1904. The canal required ten years for completion, and 
its cost exceeded three hundred million dollars. It is im¬ 
possible to estimate its value to commerce. An idea of 
the extent to which it saves distance may be found in the 



Locks in the Panama Canal 


fact that it shortens the voyage from New York to San 
Francisco by 8000 miles. While the United States owns 
and operates the canal, its use is open to all nations. 

Topics and Questions 

1 . Explain how the War with Spain brought about a change of 
policy with respect to the relations of the United States with the rest 
of the world. What objections have been made to the expansion of 
United States territory and the new policy it has brought about? 
Define the terms: imperialists, expansionists, anti-imperialists. 


on account of the Monroe Doctrine, resist aggressions of European 
nations against these republics, it should in fairness see to it that the 
rights of the European nations are protected. In order to secure 
debts due to European countries, the United States has taken charge 
of the finances of Santo Domingo and Hayti, in the West Indies, and 
Nicaragua, in Central America — another step that increased the 
responsibility of the United States in the world’s affairs. 









THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER 


455 


2. Give a brief description of Porto Rico. Of the Philippine archi¬ 
pelago. Of Guam. What trouble did Aguinaldo and his insurgents 
make for the United States government? 

3. How and when were the Hawaiian Islands annexed to the United 
States? State briefly their earlier relations with the United States. 

4. How was Wake Island acquired by the United States? How 
were six islands of the Samoan group acquired? How the Virgin 
Islands? Give a brief description of Wake Island. Of the Samoan 
Islands. Of the Virgin Islands. How are our colonial possessions 
governed? 

5. Tell the story of the establishment of the republic of Cuba. 
Why were the United States troops kept in Cuba until the year 1902? 
Was it in keeping with our pledge? 

6. Why was President McKinley reelected? How did he die? 
Who succeeded him in the Presidency? 

7. What reasons led the United States government to complete 
and control the Panama Canal? How and why did Panama become 
an independent republic? Define a protectorate. Over what coun¬ 
tries, besides Panama, does the United States exercise a protectorate? 

8. Describe the work done on the Panama Canal. Give some idea 
of the value of the canal to commerce. 

Project Exercises 

1. Make maps of the two hemispheres and place all the colonial 
possessions of the United States. Would Cuba, Panama, Santo 
Domingo, Haiti, and Nicaragua be among them? 

2. Compare the colonial system of the United States with the 
colonial systems of European countries (see page 433). 

Important Date: 

1904-1914. Construction of the Panama Canal. 


CHAPTER XLI 

THE GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE 

The New Democracy. — The opening of the twentieth 
century found not only a change of policy on the part of our 
government toward foreign affairs, but it found also a well 
defined sentiment among the people that the government 
should change its policy toward domestic matters. The idea 
of democracy that had prevailed so long in this country is 
that the government should leave as much as possible to 
each man the working out of his destiny. Thomas Jefferson 
expressed this idea when he said, “that government is the best 
that governs the least.” But there had grown up a new idea 
of democracy. The new idea — progressive, it came to be 
called — is that, since a democratic government is established 
for the benefit of all equally, it should use every means in 
its power to prevent one man from having an unfair advan¬ 
tage over another; and that it should go even further by 
giving direct aid to the people in their efforts to ^se to 
a higher and better life. 

Business and the People. — Trusts had so multiplied that 
by the opening of the twentieth century they were beginning 
to control all business. The cry went up for stricter laws 
for regulating “big business” in the interest of the people. 

How to adjust properly the relation between business and 
the people is a great problem yet unsolved. The railroad 
and the telegraph, giving quick communication between 
distant points, have revolutionized business. Where in 
former times a business was confined to nearby territory, it 
now extends over the length and breadth of the country. 
The people are benefited by this expansion of trade, for it 
enables them to buy at home the best that any market 
affords. But for business conducted on so large a scale com- 

456 


THE GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE 457 

binations of wealth are necessary. Companies with small 
capital could not conduct the business of the country with 
an efficiency that would satisfy the modem ideas of the 
purchasing public. 

On the other hand, combinations of wealth, by placing 
control of business in the hands of a few men, enable them to 
force up prices. Tmsts have often extorted money from the 
people in this way. It is difficult for the public to distinguish 
“good tmsts” from “bad tmsts”; and hence there is a 
strong prejudice against all “big business.” Then, too, it is 
very difficult for the government to find a plan for regulating 
combinations of capital that will protect the interests of the 
people and not handicap business. 

President Roosevelt was active in trying to regulate tmsts 
in the interest of both the business of the country and the 
people. Public men are still seeking a way to allow large 
combinations of capital with restrictions that will not injure 
trade. It is hoped that the problem will soon be solved, for 
the condition of business affects the life of every man, 
woman, and child. 

America’s Wastefulness. — As a part of the belief that 
the government should give direct aid to the people, arose 
the demand that the government should conserve our natural 
resources. There has been, and is now, a shameful waste of 
these resources. For instance, if the present waste in the 
metnods employed in extracting and marketing iron and 
petroleum is not checked, the supply of these products will 
not last half a century longer. The condition of the coal 
industry is quite as serious. Lands have decreased in 
fertility on account of unscientific farming, and streams 
suitable for navigation and for generating power lie idle. 
With nothing, however, have our people been more reckless 
in their wastefulness than with the forests. Through the 
careless cutting of timber and disastrous, though preventable 
fires, our forests have for a long time been stripped of more 
trees each year than the yearly growth of new trees can 
replace. It is estimated that “if the use and waste of the 


458 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


forests continue unchanged, all the mature timber now 
standing will be used up by 1965.” Besides the loss of 
timber, destruction of the forests causes streams at times 
to dry up and at other times to overflow, resulting in either 
event in much damage to crops. 

Saving the Forests and Minerals. — President Roosevelt 
early took up the matter of conservation. Unfortunately, 
most of the public lands had been sold or given away before 
the people awoke to the fact that they were parting with their 
most valuable resources. In order to save as much of the 
forests as possible, the government withdrew many millions 



The black portions indicate the Western reserves; the shaded sections show 
the Appalachian and White Mountain reserves 

of acres of lands that were still for sale and repurchased 
many other millions. Not only are the forests on these lands 
carefully guarded, but new forests are being planted. Under 
the law these forests can now be purchased only under con¬ 
ditions that will prevent their waste. To preserve the 
metals, minerals, and oil, Congress passed a law providing 
that all such products found on public land sold after the 
passage of the act shall belong to the government and not 
to the purchaser of the land. The government hopes to 
find a way to regulate the use of the natural resources that 
are privately owned so as to prevent their waste. 
















THE GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE* 459 

Irrigation. — One of the most notable feats of conserva¬ 
tion is the reclaiming by irrigation of many millions of 
acres in the Rocky Mountain region. These lands, though 
fertile, were unfit for cultivation because of the absence of 
rainfall. Individuals and companies, and even states, had 
tried to remedy this 
condition by drawing 
water from the moun¬ 
tain streams and send¬ 
ing it over the fields 
through ditches, but 
the irrigation of so 
vast an area requires 
an enormous expendi¬ 
ture of money that 
only the Federal gov¬ 
ernment can afford. 1 
In 1902, through the 
urging of President 
Roosevelt and the 
members of Congress 
from the Far West, a 
law was passed pro¬ 
viding that the funds 
thereafter derived 
from the sale of public 
lands in the states 
where the arid region 
lies should be used for irrigation purposes. Acting under 
this law the government has, by building huge dams across 
mountain streams, created immense reservoirs, or artificial 
lakes, from which water may be drawn through canals to 
irrigate the land. The water is sold to the farmer on easy 
terms, and on lands once arid are now grown abundant 
crops. Indeed, the farmer who depends on irrigation is 

1 The early settlers found the Indians irrigating the land in this 
manner (see page 272). 












460 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

more fortunate than the one who depends on rainfall, for 
he may have his land dry or moist when he pleases. 

It would be hard to exaggerate the engineering skill dis¬ 
played in constructing the irrigation works. In Idaho is 
the highest dam in the world, in Colorado the longest tunnel, 
and in New Mexico the largest artificial lake. Another 
remarkable work is the Roosevelt dam in Arizona. Already 
the United States government has spent nearly fifteen million 
dollars on irrigation. 


Electricity Furnished by the Government. — The dams 
make water power which the government generates into 
electricity. The farmer, the miner, and the dweller in the 



Experiment Station Farm 
United States Department of Agriculture 


nearby town are permitted to use the electricity at a cheap 
rate. All fees received by the government for the use of 
the water and electricity are added to the fund for main¬ 
taining the irrigation works. 

Other Methods of Helping the Farmer. — The demand for 
conservation stimulated the movement already begun for 
the improvement of life on the farm (see page 408). The 
Federal government is now spending millions of dollars every 
year in demonstrating how to improve the soil, how to select 
the most suitable crops, how to destroy insects and other 
enemies to vegetation, how to make live stock and poultry 




THE GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE 461 


raising and dairying profitable; in short, how to lighten 
the burden of the farmer and the farmer’s wife. The govern¬ 
ment is also assisting in the building of good roads and is 
now studying the question of utilizing for navigation the 
inland waterways. 

Pure Food Laws. — The public health has been cared for. 
In the old days all food was prepared in the home, but in 
this age of machinery most of our meats are prepared in 
packing houses and our fruits and vegetables canned in fac¬ 
tories. Much of the food that passed from these large 
establishments into the homes of the people was impure. 
Congress has passed laws requiring the inspection of meat at 
the packing houses, and the labeling of other foods and of 
medicines to show their ingredients. 

The Primary System and the Secret Ballot. — In order 
to carry out the ideas of the new democracy it was necessary 
for the people to take a more direct part in the government. 
Among the first matters in which changes were made was the 
selecting of candidates for office. Previously candidates had 
been selected by conventions, and it often happened that 
politicians who controlled a convention. selected as the 
candidate a man who was not the choice of the people. By 
the primary plan each member of a political party votes 
directly for the person whom he wishes to be the candidate 
of the party at the general election. Most states have 
adopted the primary system. 

But a free expression of the people could not be had in 
either the primary or the general election as long as the 
buying and selling of votes, which had become very 
common, should continue. Most of the states have, there¬ 
fore, adopted the Australian system of voting. By this 
system the voter casts his ballot in such strict secrecy that 
no one but himself knows how he votes. Since there is no 
way to watch the bribe-taker to see whether he votes as 
he promised to do, the bribe-giver is not willing to risk 
money on him. 

The Initiative and the Referendum. — Sometimes a legis- 


462 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

lature may fail to pass a law that the people desire or may 
pass a law that the people do not desire. In order to make 
the legislature express the will of the people, some of the 
states — mainly states of the Far West — have adopted 
the Initiative and the Referendum. By the Initiative it 
is provided that, upon the petition of a certain percentage 
of voters, a measure shall be voted upon by the people, 
and if the vote is favorable, the legislature must enact the 
measure into law. In some states a measure favorably voted 
upon becomes a law without being referred to the legislature. 

By the Referendum it is provided that, upon the petition 
of a certain percentage of voters, a measure passed by the 
legislature must be submitted to a vote of the people for 
approval, and, until it is approved, it does not become law. 

The Recall. — Under the law that has hitherto universally 
prevailed, an office-holder who has proved an undesirable 
official may serve out his term unless he has committed 
some crime or misdemeanor for which he would be removed 
upon conviction. In order to get rid of an official who is 
not giving satisfaction, some of the states — again the far 
Western states, in the main — have adopted the Recall. 
By the Recall, it is provided that, upon the petition of a 
certain percentage of voters, the official must immediately 
go before the people in another election. If he is defeated, 
he gives up the office. 

Municipal Reform. — Governmental reform has extended 
to the cities. The usual system of government for tjie cities 
has been vested in a mayor and council, the members of the 
council representing the several wards. Under this system 
corruption of the most vicious kind has grown up in munici¬ 
pal governments. The wards have been controlled by 
‘‘bosses,” who have combined to form cliques or “rings” 
that have robbed the cities of much money (see page 410.) 
Many cities, discarding the old form of government, have 
adopted the commission system. Under the commission 
form the city is governed by a mayor and a small board of 
commissioners, rarely more than five. Each commissioner 


THE GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE 463 

has a separate department to care for. He is elected by the 
voters of the entire city, and is directly responsible to them 
for the manner in which he conducts his office. Most cities 
that have the commission form of government have also the 
Initiative, the Referendum, and the Recall. Sometimes 
we find a city that has gone further; it has turned over the 
administration of its affairs to a business manager. 

Arbitration of Labor Disputes. — As combinations of capi¬ 
tal multiplied, the unionizing of labor went steadily on, and 
the influence of the unions grew with the increase of mem¬ 
bers. In 1902 the miners of anthracite coal in Pennsylvania 
went out on a strike. Nearly 150,000 men quit work. The 
question was chiefly the mat¬ 
ter of wages. The strike lasted 
for five months, and during 
that time the mines were prac¬ 
tically closed. The quantity 
of hard coal already mined 
soon became so reduced that 
in many places the price rose 
from five dollars to twenty- 
eight or thirty dollars a ton. 

Great distress ensued through¬ 
out the country. President 
Roosevelt, to relieve the situ¬ 
ation, suggested to the mine 
owners and the strikers that 
all questions at issue between 
them should be settled by arbitration, for which purpose he 
would appoint a commission. The suggestion was agreed 
upon. The commission, after an exhaustive investigation, 
presented a plan of settlement which was accepted by the 
contending parties. 

The surest solution of the contest between capital and 
labor is believed to be the cooperative plan, whereby the 
employer and the employee share in the profits. This plan 
is now in operation to some extent, and until it comes to 



Theodore Roosevelt 


464 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

prevail generally, arbitration is the best method for settling 
industrial disputes. 

Taft Elected President. — In 1904 Theodore Roosevelt 
was elected President for a full term. In the election of 


1908 the Republican can¬ 
didate was William H. Taft, 
of Ohio, a close friend of 
Roosevelt and a member of 
his cabinet. The Demo¬ 
crats for the third time 
nominated William J. Bryan. 
Taft was elected by a large 
majority. 



Postal Savings Banks.— 

In Taft’s administration two 
laws were passed with a view 
to making the post office 
system of further service to 
the people. The first was 
the law establishing the 
postal savings bank system. 


William H. Taft 


The purpose of the law is to enable persons of small earn¬ 
ings to deposit their savings with the United States gov¬ 
ernment for safe keeping. In every state of the Union 
there are now post offices designated by the government to 
receive deposits on which interest is paid. 

Parcel Post. — Following the establishment of the postal 
savings bank system the government decided to use the 
post office also for conducting the express business, and for 
this purpose established the parcel post. For many years the 
government had allowed a few kinds of merchandise of very 
light weight to be sent by mail, but under the parcel post 
system one can now send by mail at very cheap rates nearly 
everything (within certain limits for weight, size, and shape 
of the package) that the express companies carry. The 
parcel post has proved of great benefit. Through the post 
office the merchant sends goods to a customer out of town. 



THE GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE 465 

the farmer sends his produce to market, and the people in 
general enjoy a convenient and cheap method of sending and 
receiving merchandise. 

Wilson Elected President. — Taft was less successful 
than Roosevelt in persuading Congress to pass progressive 
measures. The progressive Re¬ 
publicans had joined with the 
Democrats in demanding a re¬ 
duction of the tariff as the best 
way to curb the trusts. Con¬ 
gress, instead of lowering the 
tariff, raised it, and, when Taft 
signed the new tariff act the 
progressive Republicans claimed 
that he had betrayed them. 

In the campaign of 1912 
the progressive Republicans 
hoped to secure for Roosevelt 
the Republican nomination for 
President. In the nominating 
convention many seats, claimed 
by delegates of both candidates, were given to Taft delegates, 
and in this way Taft secured the nomination. The pro¬ 
gressive Republicans, charging that their candidate had 
been defrauded of the nomination, held another convention, 
organized a new party under the name of Progressive, and 
nominated Roosevelt for President. The Democrats nom¬ 
inated Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey. As Roosevelt and 
Wilson both ran on progressive platforms, there was little 
difference between the policies they advocated; but Roose¬ 
velt and Taft divided the Republican vote, causing the elec¬ 
tion of Wilson. 

Important Legislation. — The Democrats had, for the 
first time in twenty years, secured complete control of the 
government — they had elected the President and had a 
majority in both houses of Congress. They had promised 
reforms along progressive lines and consequently the people 



Woodrow Wilson 


466 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

looked to the new administration to bring about these 
leforms. Congress immediately set to work to pass laws 
reducing the tariff, curbing the trusts, and reforming the 
currency. 

The first of the currency laws, commonly known as 
the reserve bank law, provided for establishing reserve 
banks in twelve cities situated throughout the country. 
Every national bank deposits a certain amount of its funds 
in the reserve bank of its district. One of the main pur¬ 
poses of the law is to enable the reserve banks so to use 
the combined resources of the national banks as to prevent 
panics. 

The other currency law established farm loan banks in 
twelve cities in different parts of the country. From these 
banks farmers can borrow on their land as security at a 
lower rate of interest than they have hitherto been able 
to borrow from the ordinary banks. 

Revolution in Mexico. — When Wilson came to the 
Presidency he was confronted with a civil war in Mexico 
which was endangering the interests of the United States. 
In 1910 a revolution had broken out against the government 
of Porfirio Diaz, who had, except for an intermission of a 
few years, been president of Mexico for more than thirty 
years. The revolution began with the peons — as the Indian 
population is called — because the lands of the country were 
held by a few wealthy persons who would not sell them and 
who charged the peons excessive rent for the use of them. 
In the battles that followed the revolutionists were so suc¬ 
cessful that Diaz resigned the presidency. Then followed 
civil war between factions claiming the government. Early 
in 1913, Victoriano Huerta seized control of the government. 
As many of the battles between Huerta and his opponents, 
under Venustiano Carranza, were fought near the line 
between the United States and Mexico, not infrequently 
shots were fired into American territory. Some American 
citizens were killed, and much American property in Mexico 
was seized or destroyed by one faction or the other. 


THE GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE 467 

Americans Occupy Vera Cruz. — President Wilson refused 
to recognize Huerta as president of Mexico because he be¬ 
lieved that Huerta was guilty of the murder of one of the 
claimants to the presidency. On account of the arrest by 
Huerta’s followers of some sailors from an American war 
vessel, who had gone ashore on a peaceful mission, the 
United States seized Vera Cruz, the chief seaport of Mexico. 
Little fighting was required to obtain complete control of the 
city, yet nineteen American soldiers and sailors were killed. 
When, a few months later, Huerta resigned the presidency 
and left the country, the United States government with¬ 
drew its forces from Vera Cruz. 

Pershing’s Expedition. — Carranza now acted as president 
Df Mexico, though not long without opposition. Francisco 
Villa, a bandit who had served under Carranza, fomented 
a rebellion against him. President Wilson, believing 
it to be to the interest of Mexico, recognized the Car¬ 
ranza government. In the spring of 1916 Villa and his 
band attacked a town in New Mexico, killing a few American 
soldiers and civilians and then retreating into Mexico. A 
detachment of United States troops, under General John J. 
Pershing, was sent into Mexico to punish Villa. Claiming 
that he could subdue the bandit, Carranza protested against 
Pershing’s expedition as an invasion of Mexican soil; where¬ 
upon President Wilson called out the militia of all the 
states — then known as the national guard — to assist the 
regular army in protecting the border. Skirmishes were 
fought in Mexico with the forces of both Villa and Carranza, 
in which a few American soldiers were killed. Villa escaped 
by fleeing into the mountains. It then appearing that the 
Carranza government could preserve order in Mexico, 
Pershing’s force was withdrawn and, early in 1917, the 
national guard was sent home. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Describe the new idea of democracy. Show how it differs from, 
the old idea. Who was the first President to take active steps to put 
the new idea into effect? 


468 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


2. Tell how the American people have been wasteful of the natural 
resources of the country. What will be the result if this wastefulness 
continues? What steps has the Federal government taken to con¬ 
serve our natural resources? 

3. Describe the government’s work on irrigation. How is the 
government helping the farmer? How is it looking after the public 
health? 

4. What systems have many states adopted for giving the people 
greater voice in the government? Define: the initiative; the referen¬ 
dum; the recall. Explain the plan that many cities have adopted for 
securing better government. 

5. Who was elected President in 1908? Relate the story of how 
President Roosevelt settled a great strike. 

6. Explain how the post office has gone into the banking and the 
express business. 

7. Who was elected President in 1912? Why was he elected? How 
did President Wilson prove to be a reformer? Explain the reserve 
bank; the farm loan bank. 

8. Give a detailed account of the trouble with Mexico. 

Project Exercises 

1. Do you think that the government’s giving direct aid to the 
public conforms to the theory that ours is “a government of the people, 
for the people, and by the people ”? 

2. Does your state have the primary system and the secret ballot? 
The initiative, the referendum, and the recall? 

3. Does your town, or the one nearest to where you live, have the 
commission form of government? 

4. What plan would you suggest as the best for settling industrial 
disputes? International disputes? 

5. Tell briefly the facts of Theodore Roosevelt’s life. Of Woodrow 
Wilson’s life (see biographies in the Appendix). 


CHAPTER XLII 


GERMANY SEEKS TO DOMINATE THE WORLD 

The Germans of Former Times. — In former times the 
Germans were admired for their work in science, philosophy, 
literature, and music. They were honored by all the world 
for their intellectual attainments. As late as the middle of 
the nineteenth century they were an agricultural people. 
Manufacturing and commerce came to Germany later than 
to England and France; but when they had once begun, 
these industries expanded so rapidly that by the close of the 
century Germany was the leading manufacturing and com¬ 
mercial nation of Europe, excepting England, and was 
beginning to rival that country. Everywhere the efficiency 
of the German in business was recognized. 

Success in industry and commerce brought a change to 
German thought. A people who had been a “nation of 
poets and philosophers” came to regard as the highest aim 
the accumulation of material riches. 

The German Military Autocracy. — A parliament had 
been given to Germany, but in so far as it protected popular 
rights it was a sham. It was a body in which the representa¬ 
tives of the people might make speeches, but which had so 
little power in the making of laws that it was likened to a 
debating society that has not the right to carry out its 
decisions. The kaiser controlled the government and was 
supported by the army. Every German soldier swore to sup¬ 
port the kaiser instead of the constitution, and in the mat¬ 
ter of declaring war the decision was left mainly with him. 1 
Compare the power of one man over the people of Germany 
with the protection afforded the people of the United States. 

1 Power was given the kaiser to declare only defensive war, but 
he could decide that any war was defensive. 

469 


470 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


In the United States the soldier swears allegiance to the 
Constitution, and the people’s representatives assembled in 
Congress alone may declare war. 

The “War Lords” and the “Junkers.” — The officials 
who assisted the kaiser in governing were selected from the 
“war lords,” the high officers of the army, and the “junkers,” 
the landed aristocracy from whom the war lords came. The 
German people had seen the kingdom of Prussia enlarged by 
force and the empire of Germany founded by force; and, 
since they had never been deeply moved by the spirit of 
democracy that had stirred the rest of the world, it was not 
difficult for kaiser, war lords, and junkers to convince them 
that it was due to their military government that Germany 
had become rich and prosperous. Thus, the twentieth 
century found the Germans, alone of the peoples of Europe, 
content to surrender their right of self-government to a 
military autocracy. 1 

Kaiser William II. — In 1888 William II, grandson of 
William I, became emperor. The new kaiser ascended the 
throne with an exalted idea of himself and his office, claiming, 
like the medieval monarchs, to rule by divine right. He 
declared, “I represent monarchy by the grace of God” and 
“Considering myself as the instrument of the Lord, I go on 
my way.” That he would brook no opposition was shown 
by such sentiments as, “The will of the king is the supreme 
law ”; “ One shall be master. It is I ”; “ Every one who is 
against me I shall crush.” 

Instead of relying upon the will of the people, this 
monarch looked more to the army to make him secure in his 
position. In addressing the army, on his becoming emperor, 
he said, “So we are bound together—-I and the army — 

1 There are Socialists in Germany as in other countries. Socialists be¬ 
lieve that all industry should be owned by the people in common and 
that the profits derived therefrom should be equitably distributed 
among the people; consequently, they are opposed to all ruling classes. 
But the Socialists in Germany in the opening years of the twentieth 
century were a minority; the great majority of the German people 
accepted without question the military autocracy. 


GERMANY THREATENS THE WORLD 


471 


so we are bom for one another, and so we shall hold together 
indissolubly, whether, as God wills it, we are to have peace 
or storm.” On another occasion he declared, “The soldier 
and the army have welded the German empire together. My 
confidence is placed on the army.” Once when some 
of the people advocated political measures displeasing to 
him he said to his soldiers, “It may happen — though God 
forfend — that I shall order you to shoot down your relatives, 
brothers, yes, even parents; but you must obey my com¬ 
mands without murmuring.” 

Bismarck Forced out of Office. — During the reign of 
William I Bismarck’s was the master mind. William II, with 
his claim of a direct commission from God to rule over his 
people, would not suffer himself to be overshadowed by the 
great statesman. Forgetting that he should feel only grati¬ 
tude to the man who had made the German empire, 
William II, soon after he ascended the throne, forced 
Bismarck to resign the chancellorship. The officials called 
to the kaiser’s side were still taken from among the war lords 
and junkers, but they were men who, instead of aiding him 
with their advice, merely did his bidding. 

Pan-Germanism. — The rest of mankind had no quarrel 
with the Germans because they were willing to live under a 
military autocracy. It was their right to have a govern¬ 
ment of their own choosing. It was also their right to com¬ 
pete through their business efficiency for supremacy in the 
commerce of the world. If the Germans had been satisfied 
to stay within their rights, they might have gone on their 
way undisturbed. 

But the spirit that accustomed the German people to look 
upon force as a proper means to all ends bore evil fruit. War 
lords and junkers, thirsting for the glory and booty of con¬ 
quest, and merchants and manufacturers, eager for more 
colonies for the sake of their markets, played upon this spirit 
in persuading the people that peaceful methods would take 
too long to bring to Germany the commanding position in 
the world to which, they claimed, she was entitled. They 


472 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

argued that Germany needed room in which to grow and 
that the quickest, and therefore the best, way to get more 
territory was to take it from other nations by force. From 
claiming the right to seize such lands as they needed they 
passed to the larger claim that Germany should dominate 
the world. The kaiser expressed this self-exalting view of the 
Germans when he proclaimed, “God has called us to civilize 
the world; we are the missionaries of human progress.” 

The claim that Germany should dominate the world is 
known as “Pan-Germanism.” The success of Pan-German¬ 
ism meant crushing the democracy that had arisen in other 
parts of the world. 

Increase of Armaments. — The people generally of 
other countries did not realize the extent to which 
militarism and Pan-Germanism had taken hold of the 
German people. Only faint echoes of the German sentiment 
reached their ears, and these they charged to the idle vapor- 
ings of a conceited race. It is not strange that the people of 
Dther countries failed to take seriously the few reports they 
heard of Germany’s ambition. They could not believe 
that a civilized nation would be willing deliberately to bring 
about a war which, involving all the powerfully armed 
nations, was certain to be more terrible than any war the 
world had ever known. Furthermore, they did not believe 
that a nation would risk such a war as long as the balance of 
power then existing between the nations might prevent it 
from gaining the victory. Other factors tended to confirm 
the belief that a great war was practically impossible. 
The people of other countries, lulled by a sense of security, 
went about their peaceful pursuits. 

Statesmen and other leaders who had kept in close touch 
with the political conditions of Europe knew better. As 
Germany increased her army, they persuaded their govern¬ 
ments to increase theirs. The introduction of an improved 
weapon of war into one army brought about the introduction 
of an even better weapon in another. A race in the building 
of heavy armaments set in between the great nations. Great 


GERMANY THREATENS THE WORLD 


473 


Britain depending, on account of her insular position, more 
on her navy than on her army, built many warships. 

The piling up of heavy armaments was a grievous burden 
upon the people, for they had to pay taxes to meet the 
immense cost. The constant striving for military superiority 
increased the irritation between nations and thus brought 
nearer the possibility of war. 

German Imperialism. — The Germans regarded as of 
prime importance to their scheme for world rule the expan¬ 
sion of the German colonial system. As already stated 
(see page 434) Germany had never been satisfied with the 
few colonies that she had been able to secure. Although she 
had failed to secure more colonies for the very good reason 
that she had entered the colonial field after most of the lands 
suitable for colonization had been taken over by other nations, 
yet she resented the fact that she did not have the colonial 
system which she thought her greatness deserved. She 
planned to get more colonies by her usual method of getting 
what she wished — force. But in modem war a country 
must have a strong navy both to hold her own colonies and 
also to seize those of another. So Germany began building 
a navy which she hoped would in time match her army in 
strength. 

The Triple Entente. — It was plain to British statesmen 
that Germany, envious of Great Britain’s vast colonial 
possessions, was directing her naval preparations against 
that country. Great Britain, therefore, built warships so 
fast that Germany could not catch up with her. It was a 
sore disappointment to Germany that Great Britain retained 
supremacy of the sea. 

For some years Great Britain held aloof from both the 
Triple Alliance, between Germany, Austria, and Italy, and 
the Dual Alliance, between France and Russia. When 
Germany’s animosity toward her became apparent Great 
Britain, regretting her isolated position, settled all differences 
between herself and France on the one hand, and Russia on 
the other, and made an agreement of friendship with these 


474 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

countries. As there was no treaty of alliance the agreement 
became known as the Triple Entente} The six great powers 
were thus aligned, three on a side, Great Britain’s naval 
superiority about balancing whatever superiority the Triple 
Alliance had had over the Dual Alliance in land forces. 





A gift of Andrew Carnegie for the use of the Hague Tribunal and for 
international conferences 

The Hague Peace Conferences. — With Europe like an 
armed camp and with nations suspicious of one another, 
there was constant danger of war. The czar of Russia, 
wishing to secure peace to the world, invited all the nations 
to send delegates to a conference to be held at The Hague, 
a city of Holland, for the purpose of agreeing upon plans for 
the reduction of armaments and for the submission to arbitra¬ 
tion of questions between nations that might cause war. 
Two conferences met at The Hague, one in 1899 and 
the other in 1907. The opposition of Germany both to the 
reduction of armaments and to arbitration prevented the 
conferences from accomplishing much. 

1 Entente is a French word meaning agreement or understanding. 









GERMANY THREATENS THE WORLD 


475 


Then Great Britain proposed to Germany that the two 
countries enter into an agreement limiting the number of 
warships that each should build. But Germany refused. 



“Berlin to Bagdad.” — The Pan-Germans did not rely 
solely upon a strong navy for securing German domination 
across distant seas. They planned to reach Asia and Africa 
overland. A railroad already ran from Berlin, through 
Austria, to Constantinople. Germany was to gain control of 
this road and extend it through Bagdad, in Asiatic Turkey, 
to the Persian Gulf, with a branch running to the Suez Canal. 
The “Berlin to Bagdad” road would furnish a quick route 










476 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

by which to divert to Germany the trade of India and Egypt 
and would also lay these British possessions open to attack 
by land in case of war. Work upon the road in Asiatic 
Turkey was begun in 1904. 

“ Mittel-Europa.” — The overland movement toward the 
East involved even more than the control of the Berlin to 
Bagdad railroad. The countries traversed by the road were 
to be brought under German military and commercial influ • 
ence, and lands of the nations on both sides of Germany were 
to be seized. Thus a mighty German empire would stretch 
through central Europe and spread over all western Asia; and 
a long step toward world domination would be made. To 
the Germans this overland movement was known as Drang 
nach Osten , the phrase meaning “push toward the East.” 
The idea of a great German empire in central Europe they 
called Mittel-Europa , “Middle Europe.” 

The Balkan States. — German control of the Berlin to 
Bagdad railroad through its entire length seemed easy to 
secure, for Austria was already an ally of Germany, 
Turkey was friendly, and it remained only to gain the weak 
Balkan states lying between Austria and Turkey. For the 
subjugation of these states Germany supported Austria in 
her designs upon the Balkan peninsula. 

But the Slavic peoples in the Balkans had to be reckoned 
with. The Slavic kingdom of Serbia lies across the path of 
the Berlin to Bagdad railroad. This little kingdom was 
very tenacious of her independence, but her material progress 
had been slow because, as she nowhere touched the sea, all 
her trade had to pass through Austrian territory, and Austria 
handicapped her with unjust trade laws. Yet Serbia was 
the center of hope for all Slavs in neighboring regions who 
groaned under the yoke of foreign masters. The Jugo-Slavs, 
or South Slavs, living in southern Austria and in the 
adjoining Turkish provinces, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 
were especially desirous of uniting with the Serbs to form 
a “greater Serbia.” It was to the interest of Austria and 
Germany to keep Serbia a weak country, for the creation 


GERMANY THREATENS THE WORLD 


477 


of a greater Serbia would, by lopping off a large slice of 
Austria, probably be the beginning of the end of that “ram¬ 
shackle” empire and would, besides, block the Berlin to 
Bagdad scheme. 

Austria Annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina. — At the 

Congress of Berlin in 1878 (see page 433) Austria had been 
authorized to restore order in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 
where there had been much turbulence owing to the tyranny 
of Turkey. The provinces were to remain under the sover¬ 
eignty of Turkey, and Austria was pledged never to annex 
them. In 1908 Austria, in violation of her pledge, annexed 
these provinces. The Serbs and the inhabitants of the 
annexed provinces were indignant at Austria’s act of bad 
faith, for it would have been easier to free Bosnia and Her¬ 
zegovina if they had continued under Turkish sovereignty. 
Russia, the “big brother” of all Slavs, was appealed to, but 
Germany notified Russia that if the latter interfered the 
German army would go to Austria’s assistance. Russia had 
just been defeated in a war with Japan and was in no con¬ 
dition to risk a war with Germany and Austria. Little 
Serbia, unable alone to fight her stronger neighbor, was com¬ 
pelled to acquiesce in Austria’s action; though she did not 
give up the hope of yet securing the coveted provinces. 

The Balkan States Make War on Turkey. — In 1912-1913 
the Balkan states combined to deliver from bondage the 
Christians who lived in the territory in Europe still held by 
Turkey. In a short war Turkey was defeated. The Balkan 
states then proceeded to divide the captured Turkish territory 
among themselves. Austria, backed by Germany, stepped 
in and prevented Serbia from gaining access to the sea, by 
erecting on the territory between Serbia and the coast, a 
new state to which the name Albania was given. The Balkan 
states next fell to quarreling among themselves over the rest 
of the captured territory. Germany and Austria, having 
still in view the weakening of Serbia, incited Bulgaria to 
make war on her allies. Bulgaria was defeated. 

The interference of Germany and Austria in Balkan affairs 


47S HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

left the peninsula in a disturbed condition. Not one of the 
Balkan states was satisfied with the result, and the resent¬ 
ment of Serbia against Austria was increased. On the other 
hand, Germany, disappointed by the defeat of her Balkan 
friends, Turkey and Bulgaria, increased greatly the size of 
her army. The other powers became feverish with anxiety 
over this sign of Germany’s intention to push vigorously her 
aggressive policy. The tenseness of the situation made 
Europe like a powder magazine which only a spark was 
needed to explode. 

Murder of the Heir to Austrian Throne. — On Jun^ 28, 
1914, the telegraph and cable carried to the four corners of 
the globe the news that on that day Archduke Francis 
Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, and his wife had been 
assassinated while on a visit to Bosnia. The world was 
shocked at the crime, but went on in ignorance of what was 
to follow. A month passed. Then the world stood aghast 
at the prospect of a mighty war growing out of the assassin’s 
deed. 

The archduke’s assassin was a subject of Austria, and the 
deed had been committed on Austrian territory. However, 
since the assassin was of Slavic blood, Austria regarded the 
assassination as a part of the Slavic movement to disrupt the 
Austrian empire by wrenching away the provinces of Bosnia 
and Herzegovina and annexing them to Serbia; and, since 
the Serbian government was believed to have encouraged the 
Slavic movement, Austria laid responsibility for the crime on 
Serbia*. On July 23, Austria made upon Serbia a number of 
demands looking to the punishment of all who were con¬ 
nected with the murder and to the prevention of the use of 
Serbian territory by Slavic conspirators as a base for future 
hostile movements against Austria. The Serbian govern¬ 
ment agreed to practically everything that Austria asked 
except the demand that Austrian judges be allowed to preside 
over the trials in Serbia of persons accused of connection with 
the crime. Serbia could not accede to such a demand with¬ 
out sacrificing her position as an independent nation. Yet, 


GERMANY THREATENS THE WORLD 


479 


so great was the desire of Serbia to avoid war, that she 
offered to submit this question, although it involved her 
sovereignty, to the arbitration of the other nations at a con¬ 
ference to be held at The Hague. 

Austria Declares War upon Serbia. — But Austria, still 
backed by Germany, was bent upon using the assassination 
of the archduke as an excuse for carrying out her long 
cherished scheme to increase her power in the Balkans by 
conquering Serbia. If the little nation should surrender 
without a fight, so much the better; if not, it would be wiped 
out. Treating with silent contempt the offer of arbitration, 
Austria declared war upon Serbia, July 28, 1914. 

Russia, Great Britain, and France Seek to Preserve Peace. 
— Meanwhile Russia had warned Austria that the Russian 
people would not be content to sit idly by and see their lit¬ 
tle Slavic brother Serbia destroyed. Following this warning, 
Russia, in order to be ready for whatever might happen, 
began mobilizing a part of her army on the frontier opposite 
Austria. Yet Russia -did not wish war. She joined Great 
Britain and France, who feared that the war would spread 
over Europe, in appealing to Austria and to Austria’s ally, 
Germany, to agree upon some plan whereby peace might 
yet be kept between Austria and Serbia. 

Germany Declares War upon Russia. —Austria had 
thought that her declaration of war against Serbia would 
mean merely the overrunning of a weak neighbor; amazed 
when she found that her action might plunge Europe into 
a general conflict, she expressed a willingness to negotiate 
for a peaceful end to her quarrel with Serbia. But Austria’s 
repentance came too late. Germany, who had for forty 
years been preparing for a world war and who believed that 
the time had come when she would be victorious in such 
a conflict, blocked all efforts for peace. Not only did she 
refuse to agree to any plan of settlement offered by Russia, 
Great Britain, or France, but she also refused to offer a 
plan of her own. Fearing that Austria would yield to the 
entreaties of other nations, and taking as an excuse the 


480 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


mobilization of the Russian army, Germany declared war 
upon Russia on Sunday, August i, 1914. 

The murder of an Austrian archduke by an obscure 
Austrian subject had furnished the spark that caused a 
world conflagration. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Tell the story of how the Germans, who had been a ‘‘nation of 
poets and philosophers, ” came to be a commercial people. 

2. Describe the government of the German empire. Tell all you 
can about William II. What man who had long served the German 
empire was forced by William II to retire from office? Why did the 
kaiser wish to get rid of Bismarck? 

3. Explain in your own words what is meant by “ Pan-Germanism. ” 
Tell how the people of other countries of Europe looked upon “ Pan- 
Germanism.” Describe the increase of armaments. 

4. What was the Triple Entente, and why was It formed) 

5. Tell how other nations tried to form a plan for preventing war 
and how Germany blocked their efforts. What is meant by “Berlin 
to Bagdad”? By “Mittel-Europa ”? Tell about the troubles of the 
Balkan states. 

6. What event that had dire consequences for the world occurred 
on June 28, 1914? Show how Russia, France and Great Britain sought 
to save Europe from a general conflict, and how Germany and Austria 
forced the issue. 

Project Exercises 

1. Write a brief essay pointing out some of the differences between 
the government of the United States and the goverment of the German 
empire. 

2. Why does an autocratic government depend upon military force? 
From what source does a democratic government derive its strength? 

3. Compare the ambition of William II with the ambition of Napo¬ 
leon I. (See page 211.) 


CHAPTER XLIII 
THE WORLD WAR 

Magnitude of the World War. — Germany’s declaration 

of war against Russia brought about a conflict that spread to 
every quarter of the globe and involved three fourths of the 
nations. Such was its magnitude that many volumes might 
be written and yet its details would not be fully described. 

All other wars, when compared with the World War, 
dwarf in size. In previous wars battles were fought on 
restricted fronts and were considered most bloody if they 
lasted a few days. In the World War the battle line on the 
western front extended from the North Sea to the borders of 
Switzerland, a distance of six hundred miles; and the line 
on the eastern front extended from the Baltic to the Black 
Sea, a distance of more than a thousand miles. Battles often 
continued for months and at times covered a front of a 
hundred miles or more. In former times it was very rare 
for more than two hundred thousand men on each side to be 
engaged in battle; in the 
World War it was not un¬ 
usual for a million men on a 
side to be engaged. Losses 
in battle once counted by the 
thousands were now counted 
by the hundreds of thousand. 

In fact, every day saw skirm¬ 
ishes at one point or another 
along the lines that in other 

wars would have been classed _ 

, , A Modern Cannon 

as battles. 

Great cannon, larger than any ever used before and 
capable of hurling shells many miles, were employed by all 
armies, though at first the Germans had a superiority in 
these death dealing weapons. 

481 



482 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

New Inventions Used in Warfare. — Many of the recent 
inventions came for the first time into general use in warfare. 

The automobile and mo¬ 
tor truck were used to 
carry men and supplies 
to the front and to bring 
back the wounded. From 
the motor car, using 
“caterpillar” chain 
drives instead of wheels 
to enable it to go over 
rough ground and 
through obstructions, the 
English evolved the 
‘ ‘ tank. ’ ’ Protected by armor plate and furnished with rapid 
firing machine guns, the tank spread consternation among 
the Germans as it crashed through their defenses. 

The aeroplane took the place of the cavalry of former wars 
as “the eyes of the army,” for it watched the enemy’s move¬ 
ments and thus prevented surprise attacks. It also directed, 
by the use of wireless telegraphy, the aim of the big guns 



throwing shells beyond the gunners’ sight, and it caused 
much destruction by dropping bombs within the enemy’s 
lines. So important has the aeroplane become as a part of 
the military service that it has been said that an army 
equipped with this machine would be able to defeat in a 
very short time a much larger army not so equipped. 



“A Caterpillar Tank” 






THE WORLD WAR 


483 


The submarine also became a prominent factor. This 
little tube-shaped vessel, navigating under the surface of the 
sea, may with a single torpedo sink the largest ship. 

The “ Second Line of Defense.” — Few European nations 
produce in time of peace foodstuffs sufficient for their own 
use; much of their food is imported from the Americas, Aus¬ 
tralia, and Asia. The World War not only caused a decrease 
of the amount of food entering the belligerent countries by 
disrupting foreign trade, but it also caused a decrease of the 
amount raised at home by drawing into the armies many 
men who had been producers. In consequence soon after 
the war began these countries faced a food shortage, and 
as the war progressed the shortage became acute. 

Food is of the utmost importance in war. Soldiers, if 
poorly fed, cannot fight their best; the people at home, if 
weakened by hunger, cannot maintain the courage and 
determination necessary to back up the men fighting the 
battles. To offset the scarcity of farm labor, old men, 
women, and children cultivated the fields. Their untiring 
efforts helped to relieve the situation but could not altogether 
overcome the shortage. Consequently, since the armies had 
first to be fed, governments took control of all food Supplies, 
restricting the amount that each civilian might have. 

Clothes, arms, ammunition, and the numerous other things 
that soldiers need had to be made; yet the war had drawn 
labor from manufacturing pursuits as well as from farming. 
Again old men, women, and children came to the rescue. In 
factories and munition plants they worked day and night. 
The people who, far from the scene of battle, sacrificed and 
labored that the armies of their country might be kept in 
good fighting condition have been aptly called the “second 
line of defense.” 

Plan of German Campaign. — France, as a member of the 
Dual Alliance with Russia was bound to aid that country 
when attacked. Great Britain’s position was different. 
The Triple Entente existing between Great Britain, France, 
and Russia was only a friendly agreement that did not bind 


484 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Great Britain to fight the wars of France or Russia (see page 
474). The Germans, mistakenly looking upon Englishmen as 
a people who liked their ease too much to fight unless com¬ 
pelled to do so, formed a plan of campaign based upon the 
belief that Great Britain would not enter the war. 

Russia, having few railroads, was not expected to mobilize 
her army quickly. An Austrian army in the east, reenforced 
by some Germans, was to hold the Russians in check, while 
an immense German army in the west was to seize Paris and 
compel France to make peace. Then the German army, 
moving rapidly back to the eastern front, was to join the 
Austrians in crushing the Russian army before it was ready 
to fight. 

Neutrality of Belgium Violated (1914). — For the execution 
of Germany’s plan speed was the most important factor. On 
the boundary line between Germany and France are moun¬ 
tains over which it would be difficult for an army and its big 
guns to pass. France had further strengthened this frontier 
by the erection of massive forts. An easier and a quicker 
way for a German army to get into France was over the 
level lands of Belgium. But Germany was obligated by 
treaty, in common with the other great powers, not to violate 
the neutrality of this little country by invading it (see page 
426). France, trusting to Germany to keep her promise, 
had not fortified her frontier opposite Belgium, nor had she 
guarded it with troops. 

Two days after the declaration of war against Russia 
(August 3, 1914), Germany rushed troops into Belgium for 
a swift descent upon France. This method of attacking 
France was as cowardly as the act of an individual in 
stabbing another in the back, and was a crime against 
Belgium; yet it was but the natural outgrowth of the 
militarism that had taught that whatever can be done by 
• force of arms is right. 

Because the Germans had in their first act of war violated 
a pledge that they should have held sacred, they immediately 
lost the good will of most of the civilized countries. Their 


THE WORLD WAR 


48s 

act was made only worse in the eyes of the world when their 
Chancellor, in defending the invasion, contemptuously called 
the Belgian treaty a mete ‘ ‘ scrap of paper. ’ ’ 

Great Britain Enters the War (1914). — The British gov¬ 
ernment was already disposed to help France, not only from 
friendship but also from self-interest, for if Germany should 
overwhelm France she would next, in her scheme for world 
conquest, turn upon Great Britain. The blow at Belgium 
threatened the safety of Great Britain; and it also assailed 
her sacred honor, for that country was one of the powers 
pledged to protect Belgium’s neutrality. On August 4, 1914, 
Great Britain declared war on Germany. 

The Germans did not mind the loss of the respect of the 
world so much as they did the wrath of Great Britain which 
their crime against Belgium had brought upon them. They 
now saw the war in a different light. With Great Britain 
helping France and Russia, victory would not come to Ger¬ 
many as easily as they had thought. Their surprise at Great 
Britain’s action soon turned to fury. Of all the peoples who 
before the war ended came to be their enemies, the Germans 
hated most the English. 

Belgians Resist Invasion (1914). — Meanwhile the little 
Belgian army had gone out to meet the hordes of Germans 
invading Belgian soil. The first battle of the war began on 
August 4, 1914, at Liege, a city of Belgium. For six days 
Belgians, commanded by General Leman, held at bay 
German forces outnumbering them three to one — held 
them until the last fort defending the city had been pounded 
to pieces by the German big guns. 

Great Britain promptly sent as much of her small army as 
was available to the aid of Belgium. The handful of British 
and Belgians could not stop the onrush, but by bravely 
contesting every foot of ground they continued so to delay 
the advance of the Germans that time was given the French 
army to come up. 

First Battle of the Marne (1914). — Even when united, the 
French, British, and Belgian armies were so outnumbered 


486 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

that they were pressed farther and farther back into France 
In a month’s time the Germans had reached the river Marne, 
within a few miles of Paris. Here, on September 6, 1914, the 
Allies 1 under the French commander, General Joseph J. C. 
Joffre, turned upon the invaders. In this four days’ battle 
the Allies, striking the right wing of the enemy and crumpling 
it up, compelled the entire German army to retreat to 
northern France and to Belgium. The first battle of the 
Marne is one of the most momentous battles of history, for 
it saved, not Paris alone, but civilization. 

In Flanders (1914). — For a month fierce fighting con¬ 
tinued daily without decided advantage to either side. Then 
the Germans began in Flanders, as western Belgium is called, 
a drive for the purpose of capturing the French ports on the 
English Channel. With these ports in German hands the 
British would have difficulty in sending troops and supplies 
to France. The battle lasted without cessation for a month 
and the losses were enormous; but the drive failed because 
the Belgians at Yser River and the British at the town of 
Ypres held out against overwhelming numbers. 

Cruel Practices. — International law, which is the law 
between civilized nations founded upon the dictates oi 
humanity, requires that all suffering not necessary to the 
winning of a war should be avoided. For this reason the 
lives of civilians should be spared, and property not of military 
value should be preserved. Warfare waged on the contrary 
principle descends to the warfare of savagery. Yet, German 
militarism justified the severest cruelty toward the civilian 
population of a hostile country on the ground that it would 
more speedily crush the spirit of resistance. 

After Belgium had been overrun the Germans subjected 
the unoffending inhabitants to the most cruel treatment. 
Cities and villages were looted and then destroyed. Fields 

1 Great Britain, France, Russia, Belgium, and other nations in 
alliance with them for the war are commonly spoken of as the “Allies,” 
while Germany and Austria and the nations fighting with them are 
called the “Central Powers ” 


THE WORLD WAR 


487 

were stripped of their products and factories of their 
machinery. In addition to the needless destruction of 
property, many thousands of Belgians were forcibly 
taken to Germany, where they were compelled to work in 
place of German laborers who had gone into the army. 
Those who remained in Belgium were made to pay enormous 
taxes in the shape of indemnities, just as if they were a 
people who had provoked war instead of having it forced 
upon them. 

Many Belgians died of starvation. More of them might 
have met this fate if neutral countries, chiefly the United 
States, had not sent them food. The world lost the last 
shred of respect for a nation that could be guilty of the 
crime of first making war upon innocent Belgium and then 
laying her prostrate. 1 

Belgium was not the only sufferer from the German policy. 
Occupied portions of France and Poland were devastated 
in the same manner. The Germans also used, contrary to 
international law, the aeroplane for dropping bombs upon 
cities and towns far from the war area. In both Paris and 
London non-combatants were killed and property was 
destroyed by air raids. How the Germans made illegal use 
of the submarine will be told later. The cruelty failed of 
its purpose, for the greater the adversity of the people of 
Belgium and France, the greater became their determination 
to drive out the invaders. 

The Eastern Front (1914). — Meanwhile Russia had 
mobilized her army quicker than expected. Russians in¬ 
vaded East Prussia and, though defeated at the battle of 
Tannenberg and driven out of Prussia by the German general 
von Hindenburg, they had helped to save Paris, for just 

1 Before the war commenced it was generally believed outside of 
Germany that, since socialists usually oppose war except when waged 
to promote socialism, the socialists of Germany would disapprove of 
that country’s going to war in the interest of autocracy. When 
war was declared, however, the German socialists with few exceptions 
supported it. They even acquiesced in the invasion and devastation 
of Belgium. 


488 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

before the battle of the Marne Germany had to send to the 
aid of von Hindenburg troops from her western army. The 
Russians also invaded Austria, and by the end of the year 
1914 they had gained possession of a large section of that 
country. In this campaign the Austrian losses were exceed¬ 
ingly large. The military machine which Germany had 
been perfecting for forty years had failed in its plan to force 
a quick peace upon France and then crush Russia. 

Japan and Turkey Enter the War (1914).—About two 
weeks after the beginning of hostilities Japan entered the 
war on the side of the Allies, and a few months later Turkey 
joined forces with her friends, Germany and Austria. Japan 
took no part in the European phases of the war, but guarded 
the interests of the Allies in the Far East. 

The British Army and Navy. — When the war began the 
regular army in Great Britain numbered less than two 
hundred thousand men. In a little more than a year it 
had been increased to a million and a half. But it was not 
yet an army large enough for so great a war; therefore the 
government resorted to the conscripting of able-bodied men 
between certain ages. Thereafter the stream of soldiers 
that flowed from Great Britain to the various fronts steadily 
increased. 

One of the most notable evidences of patriotism that the 
war brought forth was the response of the British colonies 
to the call of the mother country. The self-governing 
colonies were not compelled to furnish troops, but many 
thousands of their sons volunteered. No soldiers fought 
for the cause of democracy with more gallantry than the 
Canadians, Australians, and New Zealanders. 

From the first Great Britain’s splendid navy played a 
most important part in the contest. British warships 
immediately bottled up the German navy in German waters 
and there kept it bottled up throughout the war. 1 

1 Only once (May, 1916) did German warships venture out to attack 
the British fleet. In a severe battle which followed, known as the battle 
of Jutland, both sides lost ships, but no advantage resulted to Germany. 


THE WORLD WAR 


489 


With the assistance of the other allied navies the British 
navy blockaded the ports of Germany and Austria and shut 
out much food and materials of war that would otherwise 
have reached these countries from the outside world. With 
the German navy shut off from the seas, the allied nations 
continued without interruption to import supplies until the 
Germans began a submarine warfare; and then it was largely 
due to the British navy that the submarine did not altogether 
destroy allied commerce. Had it not been for the British 
navy the war would have borne a different aspect. 

Germany Loses her Colonies. — Deprived of the use of her 
navy, Germany could not protect her colonies. One after 
another they were all lost to her. Neighboring British 
colonies captured most of them. 

Trench Warfare. — After the battles in Flanders, in the 
autumn of 1914, fighting on the western front developed into 
trench warfare. The opposing forces dug deep trenches 
parallel to each other for the whole length of the six-hundred- 
mile battle line. The trenches were strongly fortified, and 
down in the ground the armies found protection to a con¬ 
siderable extent from the daily storm of shells. In the 
covered parts of the trenches, called “dugouts,” the men 
lived. The distance between the hostile trenches — where 
lay the shell tom area known as “no man’s land” — varipd 
from a few yards at some points to a mile or more at other 
points. Across “no man’s land” the armies watched and 
fought, each seeking an opportunity to smash his opponent’s 
trenches and drive him back to open ground. The soldiers 
• spoke of leaving the trenches to attack the enemy as going 
“over the top.” 

The Western and Eastern Fronts (1915). — Beginning in 
the spring of 1915 the British made one, and the French made 
two, tremendous but unsuccessful efforts to break through 
the German defenses, the attack of the French at Artois 1 

1 Only the most important battles are mentioned in the text. It 
should not be forgotten that throughout the war engagements were 
occurring every day. 


490 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

continuing two months. The Germans, in their turn, tried 
again to break the British line at Ypres to reach the Channel 
ports, but after a month’s struggle they gave up the attempt. 
Thus the year 1915 ended with the war on the western front a 
draw; yet many thousands of brave men on each side had 
given up their lives in efforts to gain a decisive victory. 

The Allies had failed to break the German lines because 
they were still inferior in numbers, big guns, and ammuni¬ 
tion. On the other hand, the Germans could not put forth 
their full strength because they had sent many troops from 
the western to the eastern front to take part in a cam¬ 
paign which Germany and Austria had prepared on a large 
scale for the purpose of destroying the Russian army. 

The campaign on the eastern front began with the opening 
of the spring of 1915. An immense army of Germans and 
Austrians, well supplied with cannon and ammunition, 
advanced against the Russian army which was still occupy¬ 
ing Austrian territory. At the battles of Gorlice, in Austria, 
the German big guns blasted away the Russian defenses. 
In the retreat that followed a great number of the Russians 
were slaughtered and a greater number captured, for they 
did not have enough ammunition to make an effective stand. 
Slowly, and fighting stubbornly all the way, the Russian 
aimy was driven out of Austria far back into Russia. The 
skillful generalship of the Grand Duke Nicholas saved the 
army from being destroyed; yet it was so badly shattered 
that it could not soon again take the offensive. Indeed, 
the Germans thought that they had succeeded in putting 
the Russians out of the fighting. 

Italy Joins the Allies (1915). — Although Italy had formed 
with Germany and Austria the Triple Alliance, yet she was 
not obligated to give aid to these countries because the al¬ 
liance had been purely for a defensive war and Germany and 
Austria had provoked this war. Besides, the Italian people 
had never given the alliance their hearty approval. It was 
unnatural for democratic Italy to be in league with auto¬ 
cratic Germany and Austria; and Austria still held “Italia 


THE WORLD WAR 491 

Irredenta” (see page 429). In 1915 Italy entered the war 
on the side of the Allies. 

The Dardanelles Campaign (1915). — The capture of 
Constantinople, it was believed, would bring more quickly 
to the Allies a victorious end to the war, for it would cut the 
Turkish empire in two, open the way to sending to Russia 
the ammunition that she so much needed and afford an out¬ 
let for Russia’s surplus wheat to reach the Allies, and probably 
gain for the Allies the aid of all the Balkan states that were still 
neutral. In a campaign that lasted for almost the entire 
year of 1915, the British and French made land and naval 
attacks upon the Dardanelles, the strait leading to Con¬ 
stantinople. The campaign proved a costly undertaking 
in both men and ships. It failed because of bad manage¬ 
ment, and the failure caused the Allies considerable loss of 
prestige. 

Bulgaria Joins the Central Powers (1915). — Bulgaria, 
wishing to get for herself as much as possible out of the war, 
had waited to see which side would give the greater promise 
of winning. The defeat of the Russians and the failure of 
the attack upon Constantinople causing her to believe that 
the Central Powers would win, Bulgaria cast her lot with 
them in 1915. 

The Conquest of Serbia (1915). — Twice in 1914 the 
Serbians had driven back Austrian armies that had invaded 
their country. After the retreat of the Russians in 1915 a 
large force of Germans was sent to aid the Austrians in a 
third attack upon Serbia. The combined German and 
Austrian army entered Serbia from the north, while a Bul¬ 
garian army entered from the east. Between the two forces 
Serbia was completely conquered. The neighboring .state 
of Montenegro, which had joined the Allies, also fell to 
the Central Powers. The Austrians and Bulgarians who 
remained to hold Serbia and Montenegro treated the inhabit¬ 
ants as severely as the Germans treated the inhabitants of 
Belgium and France. 

Verdun (1916). — The outstanding event on the western 


492 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


front in 1916 was the gigantic battle of Verdun. The 
Germans massed troops opposite the French front to strike 
with tremendous force a blow that would destroy the French 
army and bring France to an immediate peace. Verdun, a 
city dear to the heart of every Frenchman from its asso¬ 
ciations with the defense of France in former wars, was 
selected for the attack. So confident of a complete victory 
were the Germans that the Crown Prince, wishing the glory 
for himself, commanded the attacking forces. General 
Henri Philippe Petain commanded the French who received 
the blow. For ten months, beginning in February, 1916, the 
battle raged around Verdun. So desperate was the fighting 
that often positions changed hands several times in one day. 
The battle cry of the French was, “They shall not pass!” 
and the Germans did not pass. The dogged determination 
of the defenders of Verdun to stand their ground despite the 
mass of troops hurled against them forced the Germans to 
give up their plan of destroying the French army with one 
mighty blow. 

Such an enormous loss of men befell the French in their 
defense of Verdun that the Germans said that they were 
bleeding the French army to death; yet the Germans 
suffered a greater loss — about five hundred thousand men — 
and they had only failure to show for it. 

On Other Fronts (1916).—The Germans, thinking that 
they had put the Russians out of the war, sent many of their 
forces from the Russian to the western front. Many Aus¬ 
trians on the Russian front were withdrawn to join their 
army that was resisting an Italian invasion from the south. 
In 1916 the Italians were being driven rapidly back toward 
their own frontier by the reenforced Austrian army, when, 
to the surprise of Germany, a reorganized Russian army 
invaded Austria for the purpose of relieving the pressure 
upon Italy. So successful were the Russians that Austria, 
in order to oppose their further progress, was compelled to 
withdraw a large part of her forces from the Italian front. 
Not only was the drive against Italy brought to a halt, but 


THE WORLD WAR 


493 


the Italians were soon able to regain the ground that they 
had lost. Then Roumania entered the war on the side of 
the Allies. 

Just as conditions on the eastern front were beginning to 
look brighter for the Allies, Russia again showed signs of 
weakness. When two armies, one composed of Germans 
and Austrians, and the other of Bulgarians and Turks, 
entered Roumania, the Russians failed to give their little 
neighbor the aid they had promised. The Roumanian 
army, which of course was small, had to retreat to escape 
being caught between the two invading armies and, in doing 
so, gave up practically all Roumania. 

The Central Powers Offer Peace (1916). — At the end of 
two and a half years of war the Central Powers had reached a 
high point in their ambitious scheme. In spite of all efforts 
to dislodge them, they still held Belgium and northern 
France; they controlled the Balkan country; and they 
had overrun a large part of Russia. “Mittel Europa” 
seemed to them an accomplished fact. Considering the 
time favorable, the Central Powers made, near the end of 
1916, an offer of peace. They agreed to evacuate the 
occupied portions of Belgium and France, but wished to 
keep their other conquests. Since the Allies were fighting 
to save the world from the German menace, and since 
Germany if allowed to retain her conquests would be even 
more powerful in future wars, the offer of peace was rejected. 

The Russian Revolution of 1917. — Many of the high 
officials of the Russian government were of German blood 
or of German sympathy. They secretly used their official 
positions to help Germany. The lack of food and equip¬ 
ment from which the Russian army suffered and the failure 
of Russia to help Roumania were due to their treachery. 
Although the czar, Nicholas II, seemed at heart loyal to the 
cause of the Allies, he would not get rid of his disloyal 
officials. The people, becoming convinced of the treachery, 
rose in revolution on March 11, 1917, overturned the royal 
government, and compelled the czar to abdicate. A 


494 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


provisional government was set up in behalf of the people 
of Russia; and the despotic rule of the czars, which had 
lasted for more than three hundred years, passed away 

The new government announced that Russia would carry 
on the war vigorously. But the conducting of a revolution 
and a great war at the same time would tax the capabilities 
of an enlightened people, and the Russians are for the most 
part ignorant. Still, although it was uncertain what would 
be the effect of the revolution upon the war, the overthrow of 
despotism in Russia made clearer the great issue for which 
Europe was being drenched in blood. Only Germany, 
Austria, and Turkey now remained of the autocratic govern¬ 
ments of Europe. The war had become truly a contest 
between democracy and autocracy. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Tell with some detail how the World War differed from all 
previous wars. Mention some of the new inventions used by all armies 
and state how they were used. 

2 . Why is it necessary for the people at home to make sacrifices 
in time of war? What did the people of Europe do to support their 
armies? 

3. Explain the German campaign. Account for the invasion by 
the Germans of a country with which it was not at war. What impon 
tant result came from the invasion of Belgium? What did the Belgians 
do when their country was invaded? 

4. Why is the first battle of the Marne important in the history of 
the world? Define the terms, “Allies” and “Central Powers.” Tell 
of the gallant stand of the Belgians at the Yser River and of the British 
at the town of Ypres. 

5. Why did Germany incur the ill will of nearly the whole world? 
Relate in detail the cruelty of the Germans. 

6. Relate the happenings of 1914 elsewhere than on the western 
front. What nation joined the Allies in 1914? What nation joined 
the Central Powers? How did Great Britain raise an army? What 
part did her navy take? What became of Germany’s colonies? De¬ 
scribe trench warfare. 

7. Trace the progress of the war on the eastern and western fronts 
in 1915. Why did Italy join the Allies? Why did Bulgaria join the 
Central Powers? Tell why it was important for the Allies to take 
Constantinople, and relate how their campaign against that city failed. 


THE WORLD WAR 495 

80 What happened in 1915 to the little country that Austria's effort 
to crush in 1914 brought on the World War? 

9. Why will Verdun always be remembered with pride by the world, 
and especially by France? Explain why the Central Powers sought to 
make peace in 1916. 

10. Tell the story of the Russian Revolution. 

Project Exercises 

1. Review Chapter XXXV, and compare the sacrifices made by the 
people of Europe during the World War and the sacrifices made by the 
people of the South during the War of Secession. 

2. Why did Great Britain at the commencement of the World Wax 
have a small army and a large navy? (See pages 473, 474.) 

Important Dates: 

1914. Outbreak of the World War. 

1914. First Battle of the Marne. 

1916. Battle of Verdun. 

1917. The Russian Revolution. 


CHAPTER XLIV 

, THE UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD WAR 

How America first Viewed the War. — Immediately upon 
the outbreak of hostilities in Europe, President Wilson issued 
a proclamation declaring the United States neutral. He 
also issued an address to the people requesting that they 
refrain from act or speech that would even seem to be un¬ 
friendly to one side or the other. From the first, however, 
Americans felt the keenest interest in the great conflict. 
They eagerly sought the newspapers that they might read 
the accounts of the battles that each day the cables brought, 
and carefully studied the map of Europe that they might 
the better understand the movements of armies, surging 
backwards and forwards. 

The great majority of Americans sympathized with the 
Allies in their struggle against Germany’s effort at military 
domination. Although at first they did not as a rule think 
that the war directly concerned America, yet, even then, 
there were some who, regarding Germany as a menace to the 
world, looked upon the Allies as fighting our battles. As 
the war progressed and Germany’s method of warfare became 
more pronouncedipro-ally feeling in America deepened. 

How the War Affected America. — It was impossible for a 
war of such magnitude not to affect the life of every Ameri¬ 
can. The usual channels of world trade were dislocated. 
The articles that we were accustomed to get from abroad 
became scarce, and great quantities of our products went to 
supply the warring countries. Consequently prices went 
up by leaps and bounds. Complications soon arose as to 
our rights as a neutral to trade with other nations. 

The British Blockade. — When Great Britain’s navy 
drove German commerce from the seas and blockaded the 

496 


THE UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD WAR 497 

German ports on the Atlantic Ocean, Germany could still 
get supplies from adjoining neutral nations, such as Holland 
and the Scandinavian countries, for a belligerent must not 
blockade a neutral country. But these neutral countries 
did not produce sufficient supplies for their own peaceful 
pursuits, and it soon became evident that they were getting 
from outside sources and shipping into Germany material 
that might be used in war. Therefore, Great Britain’s navy 
stopped on the high seas vessels bound for neutral countries 
bordering on Germany, in order to prevent more of such 
supplies going to them than they needed for their own use. 

The supplies intended for these neutral countries came 
from other neutral countries, chiefly from the United States. 
According to international law neutrals are allowed freedom 
of trade with one another so long as they do not commit 
breaches of neutrality. Germany protested that Great 
Britain was illegally interfering with neutral trade. Later, 
when foodstuffs were included in the seizures, Germany, 
further incensed, declared that Great Britain was seeking to 
starve the German civilian population. 1 The United States 
and other neutrals protested that Great Britain’s inter¬ 
ference with their trade was illegal. Great Britain, denying 
that she was violating international law, continued to stop 
vessels bound for neutral countries. 

Americans Sell Munitions to the Allies. — Germany was 
displeased with the United States for not compelling Great 
Britain to stop interfering with the trade of neutral nations, 
and she found even greater reason for feeling bitter toward 
this country in the fact that Americans were selling muni- 

1 Foodstuff intended for the civilian population is not contraband 
and therefore, under international law, is not liable to seizure. When 
Germany, fearing a food shortage, took over all foodstuffs in the country 
and doled out a certain amount to each inhabitant, civilian and soldier, 
Great Britain said that there was no way to distinguish what part of the 
food entering Germany from neutral countries would be used to support 
the civilian population and what part the army. For this reason Great 
Britain contended that she was justified in stopping foodstuff going to 
Germany’s neighbors in excess of the amount needed for their own use*, 


498 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

tions, such as arms and ammunition, to the Allies. It has 
always been legal for citizens of a neutral country to sell 
munitions to a belligerent, though, since such articles are 
contraband, they are subject to capture. As there was no 
danger of capture with Germany’s navy bottled up and as 
the profits were enormous, the traffic steadily increased. 
Americans would at that time have sold munitions to Ger¬ 
many if she had been able to get ships through the blockade. 

In previous wars the Germans, as neutrals, had sold 
munitions to belligerents, but now that Germany was at 
war, the Germans took a different view of the matter. 
Germany had the largest plants in the world for manu¬ 
facturing arms and ammunition and could keep her armies 
well supplied with these materials of war, while at first the 
Allies could not make them in quantities sufficient for their 
armies. Germany had hoped that her superiority in muni¬ 
tions would be of great help to her in winning the war. She 
was disappointed when she saw munitions pouring into the 
allied countries from America and was very angry because 
she could not prevent it. She asked the United States 
government to prohibit Americans from engaging in the 
traffic, claiming that in permitting it the United States was 
committing an unfriendly act. The United States declined 
to stop its citizens doing what they had a legal right to do. 
i German Spies in America. — Germany then sent spies 
to the United States to break up by secret and illegal methods 
the traffic in munitions. The spies sought to destroy plants 
making munitions and to blow up vessels carrying them to 
the Allies. They also tried to foment strikes among the 
laborers employed in the plants and attempted to secure 
the influence of German-Americans to persuade our gov¬ 
ernment to do as Germany wished. Some explosions and 
a few strikes followed, but the work of the spies failed 
because as a rule the laboring people and the German- 
Americans remained loyal. Indeed, the chief thing accom¬ 
plished by the spies was to increase the feeling in America 
against Germany. 


THE UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD WAR 499 

Germany's Submarine Warfare. — Germany next decided 
to use her submarines in making war upon Great Britain’s 
commerce. Her purpose was twofold: to stop the traffic 
in munitions and to starve out England. Crowded on an 
island, the British do not raise enough food to support them¬ 
selves. Should the foodstuffs that they rely upon receiving 
from the outside world be cut off, they would soon perish 
from famine. 

The submarine had proved of little use against armored 
war vessels, and, if the rules of civilized warfare were ob¬ 
served, it would lose much of its effectiveness against merchant 
ships. International law demands that, before a merchant 
ship is sunk, provision must be made for the safety of the 
crew and passengers; but the little submarine cannot take 
care of the crew or passengers of a big ship and, moreover, 
the ship might escape if it saw the submarine in time or it 
might sink the submarine, which is a very frail vessel. 

In order to use the submarine as effectively as possible, 
Germany was willing to use it illegally. She would have it 
attack and sink a merchant ship without warning. Early 
in 1915 Germany declared the waters surrounding the 
British Isles, including the English Channel, to be in the war 
zone and announced that her submarines would sink with¬ 
out warning every merchant ship of a belligerent nation 
sighted within the zone. Neutrals were advised not to sail 
upon, or send their goods by, ships of belligerent nations 
bound for the zone, and were warned to keep their own ships 
out of the zone lest they be sunk by mistake. 

The legality of Great Britain’s method of enforcing the 
blockade was open to question, but there was no question 
about the illegality of Germany’s proposed submarine war¬ 
fare. Besides, there was this great difference: Great Britain 
seized cargoes, agreeing to pay for such as could be proved to 
have been seized wrongfully; Germany proposed to take the 
lives of innocent people. Americans were very indignant 
that Germany should threaten to kill them if they should 
exercise their right of using the se»-s President Wilson 


500 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

promptly notified Germany that she would be held to strict 
account for injury done by her to a citizen of the United 
States. 

Sinking of the “ Lusitania.” — Within a few months 
German submarines sunk many ships, some of them belong¬ 
ing to neutrals. Among those who lost their lives were two 
Americans. The United States government was investi¬ 
gating the circumstances of the death of these Americans 
when the terrible news came that on May 7, 1915, the 
Lusitania, a large British passenger ship making a regular 
trip from New York, was torpedoed and sunk by a submarine 
off the coast of Ireland, and more than eleven hundred men, 
women, and children — of whom about one hundred were 
Americans — were killed or drowned. 

The murder of American citizens, who had a right to be 
on the Lusitania, aroused the wrath of our people. A great 
clamor arose that Germany should be punished for her 
crimes against America. But President Wilson, not wishing 
that our country should rush into war, addressed a note to 
Germany calling on that country to disavow the sinking of 
the Lusitania, make reparation for the injury to American 
citizens, and promise not to commit again such a crime. 

Because they knew that we were not prepared for war the 
Germans were not then afraid of the United States. They 
were not ready to admit that a crime had been committed. 
On the contrary, they celebrated with great rejoicing the 
deed whereby innocent men and women and even babes 
had been sent to watery graves. Germany’s answer to 
President Wilson’s note defended the sinking of the Lusitaniao 
The exchange of a number of notes followed, but Germany 
never agreed to a settlement satisfactory to this country. 
Nevertheless, Germany seemed to have stopped for a time 
sinking ships without warning. Her course now, however, 
was hardly less inhumane, for sometimes the crew of a vessel 
attacked was forced to take to lifeboats far from land. 

When, early in 1916, the French passenger steamship 
Sussex was torpedoed without warning, causing the loss of 


THE UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD WAR 501 

American lives, the American people were unwilling to put 
up longer with Germany’s lawlessness. President Wilson 
again sent a note to Germany, demanding that the murdering 
of our citizens cease. Germany then made a promise to 
desist from sinking vessels without warning. 

Germany’s Faithlessness. — Germany was not sincere in 
her promise, for she was not at heart repentant. Her first 
fleet of submarines had been crudely built, and the British 
navy had succeeded in capturing or destroying most of them. 
It was necessary to build a new fleet of submarines of im¬ 
proved type, and while it was building Germany was willing 
to be good. 

Early in 1917, the new fleet of submarines having been 
completed, Germany announced that she would renew the 
sinking of merchant ships without warning. Her resumption 
of submarine warfare was to be on an even greater scale, for 
neutral as well as belligerent ships were to be sunk, and the 
zone was extended so that it would cover the waters of the 
coasts of France and the Mediterrenean Sea. America was 
thus flaunted in the face. The insult was made more dis¬ 
tasteful by Germany’s saying that she would allow the 
United States to send one ship a week to England, provided 
it was painted with bright colored stripes that would make it 
easily recognizable. 

Germany Plots Against the United States. — Nothing 
more was needed to make America go to war with Germany; 
yet just at this time Germany was detected in an attempt to 
persuade Mexico to attack the United States if our country 
went into the war. The scheme included inducing Japan 
to join with Mexico, and its purpose was to keep Ameri¬ 
cans so busy with a war at home that they could not take 
effective part in the war in Europe. Mexico was to receive 
as a reward Texas, California, and other southwestern states. 

War with Germany Declared. — On April 2,1917, President 
Wilson appeared before Congress and asked that body to 
declare that a state of war with Germany existed by reason of 
that country’s acts. He showed that Germany’s use of the 


502 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

submarine was a warfare against the world — a warfare of 
military autocracy against humanity. He urged that the 
war with Germany be waged not for conquest but for the 
principle that “the world must be made safe for democracy.” 
He added: “ To such a cause we can dedicate our lives and our 
fortunes, everything that we are and everything that we have, 
with the pride of those who know that the day has come when 
America is privileged to spend her blood and her might for 
the principles that gave her birth and the happiness and the 
peace which she has treasured. God helping her, she can 
do no other.” 

On April 6, 1917, Congress resolved, “That the state of 
war between the United States and the Imperial German 
Government, which has thus been thrust upon the United 
States, is hereby formally declared.” 1 

Why Germany Risked War with America. — The German 
people were feeling the pinch of hunger and were beginning 
to fear that the fortunes of war might turn against therm 
The war lords had to allay this fear. They believed, and 
they persuaded the people to believe, that the renewal of the 
submarine warfare would starve out England and bring her 
to her knees in a few months; that, while it would probably 
draw the United States into the war, having this country for 
an enemy would not matter, for Americans were too fond of 
money making to become good soldiers. They said that 
even if the Americans tried to raise and train an army the 
war would be over before they could do so, or, if it were not, 
the submarine would prevent any considerable part of the 
army from reaching Europe. 

America’s Unpreparedness. — It is true that America was 
unprepared for war. Americans are a people who have 
always wished to avoid becoming a military nation and, 

1 The nations that declared war against Germany, other than those 
mentioned in the text, are Brazil, China, Cuba, Greece, Liberia, Panama, 
Portugal, and Siam. Of these only Greece and Portugal took an active 
part in the war. A number of other nations severed relations with 
Germany. 


THE UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD WAR 503 

although there was danger from the first of their being drawn 
into a war that was affecting the whole world, nothing had 
been done toward getting ready. It was important now that 
America enter actively into the war as speedily as possible, 
for Belgium, Great Britain, France, and Italy, in combating 
so long the powerful military machine of the Central Powers, 
had given the flower of their manhood, and Russia, in the 
throes of revolution, was wavering. 

“Win the War!” — As soon as war was declared the 
President, the Congress, and the people set to work to gather 
together the strength of the nation for the conflict. The 
United States is the richest and one of the most populous of 
countries, and its resources would be used to their utmost 
limit if necessary. “Win the war!” became the slogan of 
America. 

Raising the Army. — The first thing to be done was to take 
steps toward raising an army large enough to be effective in 
the greatest war of history. The regular army and the 
national guard of the several states were used as a nucleus, 
and as previous wars had shown that volunteering could not 
be depended upon, Congress passed a conscription law for 
raising the rest of the men needed. 1 The law required that 
every man from twenty-one to thirty-one years of age 
should register. From the list of about ten million men thus 
obtained, those who were physically disabled, or engaged in 
pursuits necessary to carrying on the war, or had dependent 
families, were exempted from service in the army, while the 
others were held in readiness to be sent to camps to be made 
soldiers. 

The camps, which had all to be built, were located in 
different parts of the country. When completed they 
accommodated each about forty thousand men. The camps 
were cities in themselves, with their numerous buildings for 
offices and sleeping quarters, warehouses, commissaries, mess 
halls, and repair shops, and with their graded streets, electric 

1 It will be remembered that in the War of Secession both the United 
States and the Confederate States resorted to conscription (seepage 342). 


504 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

lights, water works, fire departments, and telegraph and 
telephone systems. So many laborers were employed in 
erecting the buildings and so rapidly did they work that all 
the camps were completed in the space of a few months. 

Immediately upon the arrival of men in camp their military 
training was begun. When they had reached a certain degree 
of fitness, they were sent to Europe for further training near 
the battle line, and their places in the camps in this country 
were taken by others who, in their turn, were given training 
and then sent to Europe. 

General Pershing in Command. — General John J. 
Pershing, who had been selected to command the American 


army in Europe, arrived in 
France in June, 1917. A few 
weeks later a small contingent 
of America’s regular army 
marched through the streets 
of Paris as a symbol of our 
promise to the gallant people 
of France that an American 
army was coming in force. By 
the summer of 1918 three quar¬ 
ters of a million American sol¬ 
diers, most of whom had been 
civilians a few months before. 



\ were in Europe. 

The Navy. — Fortunately 
the American navy was in 


John J. Pershing 


excellent condition. A fleet, under command of Rear 
Admiral William S. Sims, was promptly sent to European 
waters, where very soon it was giving valuable aid to the 
allied fleets in blockading Germany and checking the sub¬ 
marine menace. Ships from the American and British 
navies convoyed across the ocean the transports carrying 
our troops, and so carefully did they guard the transports 
that of the two million and more men sent across in a 
little more than a year, only a few hundred met death from 


THE UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD WAR 50$ 

submarine attack. It was a most remarkable military and 
naval feat that, in so short a time, a large army was raised 
and trained and convoyed three thousand miles over an 
ocean infested with hostile submarines. 

Our navy had also to guard our long seacoast. That 
there might be vessels enough for this purpose the navy took 
over many ships, yachts, and motor boats belonging to 
citizens. All navy yards for building war vessels were 
enlarged. The number of seamen was increased to nearly 
half a million, and camps were erected at various ports for 
training the recruits. 

Construction Work in France. — Several French seaports 
were given over for use by the United States. At these 
ports our government built many docks so as to receive a 
great number of ships at one time, and rows upon rows of 
immense warehouses. Most of the material used in build¬ 
ing the docks and warehouses was prepared in this country, 
shipped to France in parts, and there put together. Our 
government also built at these ports large freight yards. 
Locomotives, cars and rails, were sent from America for use 
on the railroads that carried American troops and supplies 
from the ports to the battle line. 

Highest Point of Submarine Warfare. — In 1917 the 
German submarines reached their highest point of activity. 
They now waged their warfare most ruthlessly, torpedoing 
even hospital ships and killing or drowning nurses, sick, and 
wounded. The submarines sank so many ships carrying 
food that the allied countries were threatened with star¬ 
vation. Conditions in France became so serious that not 
only the people at home, but the brave soldiers in the 
trenches, were put on very limited rations. 

“ Ships, Ships, More Ships! 99 — The United States agreed 
to send food to the allied countries, but to do so ships were 
needed to take the places of those sunk by the submarines. 
“Ships, ships, more ships!” came as a cry from Europe to 
America. The United States government took over the 
country’s shipping. It reduced the number of ships used in 


506 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

trade with the neutral countries of Europe, brought from the 
Great Lakes all vessels suitable for ocean service, and with¬ 
drew those trading with South America, Australia, and Asia. 
German vessels that had sought safety in our harbors at the 
beginning of the war were seized, and Dutch vessels visiting 
our ports were pressed into service. Still, there were not 
enough ships. So America began to build. Some ships 
were built of steel, others of concrete, and still others of wood. 
Such rapid construction of ships the world had never seen 
before. One vessel was launched in 27 days after the keel 
was laid, finished in another 10 days, and, after three days 
spent in loading, 40 days in all, it was sent with a cargo across 
the Atlantic. 

England was at the same time building ships rapidly. By 
midsummer of 1918 the United States and England were 
building ships faster than the submarines could destroy them. 
Although submarine warfare had failed, yet so close had 
been the race that for a time the point was dangerously near 
when the Allies might have been starved into submission. 

America Feeds the Allied Countries. — Obtaining the 
foodstuffs necessary for the Allies taxed the United States. 
Wheat is the main staple of food in Europe, and the Allies 
needed many million bushels more of the cereal than we 
ordinarily raise in excess of our own use. Meat, sugar, and 
dairy products were also needed by the Allies. The govern¬ 
ment, therefore, made rules regulating the use of these food¬ 
stuffs by our people. On certain days Americans abstained 
from eating wheat and on others meat. These days were 
known as “wheatless days” and “meatless days.” The 
supply of sugar and dairy products for each person was also 
limited. In order to save coal to be used as fuel by ships 
carrying food, heat was on certain days cut off from public 
buildings and manufacturing plants, and on certain nights 
the use of electric lights was curtailed. Thus there were also 
“heatless days” and “lightless nights.” By denying them¬ 
selves food and comforts, Americans were able to feed their 
brave allies'. 


THE UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD WAR 507 

Government Assumes Control of Business. — The govern¬ 
ment took control of practically the entire industry of the 
country. Whatever part of a product the government 
needed for carrying on the war it used; the people contented 
themselves with what was left. The kinds of business that 
were not essential to winning the war were curtailed in their 
output whenever the raw material they used was needed for 
military purposes. That traffic might be speeded up, the 
government took charge of the railroads, and the express, 
telegraph, and telephone systems. 

The Great Cost. — Only the barest outline has been given 
of what the United States did to make good its declara¬ 
tion of war against Germany. The things that the govern¬ 
ment accomplished far exceeded what most persons believed 
a nation could do. The cost exceeded twenty billions of 
dollars. It amounted, of course, to more than it would 
have if we had not been compelled to work with such 
haste. To raise the money the government imposed heavy 
taxes and issued bonds, known as “Liberty Bonds.” The 
people bought so liberally of the bonds that every issue was 
oversubscribed. 

Patriotism of the People. — As the government needed the 
aid of expert business men in controlling the industry of the 
country, many leaders of the commercial world laid aside 
their own affairs to give to the government their time and 
talent. Laborers in the factories, in the mines, and on the 
farms vied with one another to produce as fast as possible the 
necessaries of war. 

Voluntary organizations rendered valuable aid. The Red 
Cross sent its nurses to the battle-scarred countries of Europe 
to care for the wounded and sick and others in distress. The 
Red Cross also established in nearly every city and town in 
America chapters among the women to make bandages and 
knit garments. Other organizations looked after the enter¬ 
tainment and religious welfare of the men in the camps in 
this country and in the trenches in Europe. They gave the 
men touches of home life that the government could not give. 


508 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Prominent among these organizations were the Young Men’s 
Christian Association, Young Women’s Christian Asso¬ 
ciation, Knights of Columbus, Jewish Welfare Board, War 
Camp Community Service, American Library Association, 
and Salvation Army. 

The people bore the high taxes, the increased cost of living, 
the restriction of business, the limitation of food, and the 
surrender of comforts, — they bore all uncomplainingly, 
because America had joined the Allies in a war for world 
democracy and the war must be won. 

Germany had made many miscalculations, but none greater 
than her prediction that America would count for little m 
the war. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Tell how the people of the United States at first looked upon the 
World War as regarding themselves; why they took so much interest 
in it and why their sympathy was more for one side than the other. 
State why it was impossible for the war not to affect the people of the 
United States. 

2. Describe the British blockade and mention some of the countries 
that protested against it. 

3. Relate the story of the Americans’ selling munitions. What did 
Germany say about this action of the Americans? What had been 
Germany’s previous record in the matter of selling munitions? 

4. For what purpose did Germany send spies to the United States? 
Did the spies succeed in doing what they set out to do? 

5. Describe the German submarine warfare. Tell the story of the 
Lusitania. What effect did the sinking of the Lusitania have upon 
the people of the United States? Upon the people of Germany? 

6. When and why did the United States declare war upon Germany? 

7. Why was Germany willing to risk war with the United States? 
Was she right in thinking the United States unprepared for war? 
What became the slogan of America and how was an army raised to 
make the slogan good? Who was selected to command the American 
army? Relate the record of the American navy. Tell of the con¬ 
struction work done in France by the United States. 

8. Why were ships needed and what did the United States do to 
obtain them? Explain “meatless,” “wheatless” and “heatless” 
days and “lightless” nights. Tell how the government took control of 
industry. 

9. How was money raised for carrying out the plans of the United 


THE UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD WAR 509 


States for winning the war? Tell how the American people showed 
their patriotism. 

Project Exercises 

1. Do you think that a neutral country should sell munitions to a 
belligerent country? Give reasons for your opinion. 

2. Contrast the British blockade with the German submarine 
warfare. 

3. Write an essay giving the reasons for the United States entering 
the war on the side against Germany. 

4. Memorize the sentence in the text quoted from President Wil¬ 
son’s address asking Congress to declare war against Germany. 

Important Date: 

1917. April 60 Declaration of war against Germany by the United 
States. 


CHAPTER XLV 
THE FREE NATIONS TRIUMPHANT 

The Hindenburg Line ( 1917 ). —After two years o! 
unceasing labor Great Britain had raised a large army and 
manufactured vast quantities of war material, with the 
result that the Allies had become superior to the Germans 
on the western front in men, guns, and ammunition. This 
superiority was shown at the battle of the Somme in the 
autumn of 1916, when the British, under their commander, 
General Sir Douglas Haig, succeeded in breaking through 
the German line on a front of twenty miles, and were stopped 
in their advance only by bad weather. During the winter 
the British made preparations to continue the assault upon 
a large scale as soon as the weather permitted. With the 
coming of the spring of 1917, however, it was found that the 
Germans had retreated a considerable distance to a new 
line, which became known as the Hindenburg line in com¬ 
pliment to the general who had been brought from the 
eastern front to command the German army in the west. 

The withdrawal of the Germans was an adroit military 
movement. Not only had the Hindenburg line been fortified 
until it was the strongest on any front, but, since it was 
much shorter than the line given up, fewer men were required 
to defend it. Besides, the British would have to spend some 
months in moving up to the Hindenburg line the immense 
stores of munitions that they had collected on the old battle 
front, and in the meantime their intended assault would be 
delayed. 

The Germans had conducted their retreat most skilfully 
but still with harsh methods of war. By destroying practi¬ 
cally every thing in the area over which they withdrew, they 
had made it a barren waste. 


510 


THE FREE NATIONS TRIUMPHANT 511 

Collapse of Russia. — A severe blow befell the Allies 
on the eastern front in 1917. The socialists (see pages 470, 
489) had gained control of Russia. It will be remembered 
that socialists generally do not approve of war except when 
waged in the interest of socialism. The moderate members 
of the party, who were at first in control, thought that 
Russia should continue in the war, for they realized that 



the success of Germany would not only ruin Russia but 
would crush socialism. Kerensky, one of the ablest of 
the socialists, who was at the head of the government, used 
all the force of his eloquence to keep up in Russia the 
fighting spirit. But the influence of the extreme socialists, 
who clamored for immediate peace, spread rapidly in the 
army. Soldiers by the thousands left the battle front, 
Soon not much was left of the Russian army. 










512 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Effect on Other Fronts. — The collapse of Russia was 
quickly felt. A great number of German and Austrian 
troops left the Russian front to reenforce their armies fighting 
on the Italian and the French and Belgian fronts. Over* 
whelmed by the great odds against them, the Italians, who 
had advanced closed to Trieste, were driven back across the 
mountains to the Piave River in Italy. Venice was threat¬ 
ened, but the Italians making a stand on the Piave, saved 
the beautiful city. 

Cambrai. — Although they were now confronted by an 
army much larger than their own, the British under General 
Haig attempted, while the campaign in Italy was in progress, 
to smash by a surprise attack the Hindenburg line opposite 
the town of Cambrai. The British, taking the Germans 
unawares, pierced the line; but the Germans, recovering 
from their surprise, threw into the breach such heavy reen¬ 
forcements that the British were compelled to give up some 
Df the ground that they had gained. In the battle of Cam¬ 
brai each side lost hundreds of thousands of men. 

End of the Year 1917. — With Russia out of the war and 
with the Central Powers superior in strength on every front, 
the year 1917 ended with the Allies waiting for the American 
army to reach France in force. 

Anarchy in Russia. — Conditions in Russia went from 
bad to worse. Kerensky was overthrown, and the Bolshev- 
iki, the radical wing of the socialists, got into power. The 
Bolsheviki are more anarchists than socialists. The social¬ 
istic theory is that the government should acquire gradually 
and by purchase the ownership of all industries and conduct 
them for the benefit of all the people. The Bolsheviki, 
impatient of this slow and orderly method, seized immedi¬ 
ately, without compensation to the owners, railroads, banks, 
factories, mines, and other industries and placed them 
in charge of ignorant and often dishonest persons to con¬ 
duct, they alleged, for the public good. Great confusion 
followed. Banks suspended, stores closed, and factories 
and mines shut down; the railroads, breaking down, could 


THE FREE NATIONS TRIUMPHANT 


513 


not transport food from regions where it was grown to 
regions where it was needed. In many places famine 
threatened. 

The Bolsheviki never represented more than a small 
proportion of the Russian people. They gained and held 
power by terrorism. Many who opposed them met with 
violent death. No autocratic government was ever more 
tyrannical; yet, however low Russia had sunk in misery, 
the blame must be attached to the rule of the czars. The 
oppression of the masses for centuries had not only made all 
of them discontented, but had also made some of them 
radicals of the most extreme type. The people at large, sud¬ 
denly given their liberty, were unprepared to set up imme¬ 
diately stable self-government, and violent men got control. 

Russia Surrenders. — German spies and agents had much 
to do with undermining Russia’s power of resistance by 
spreading Bolshevik doctrines among the Russian people. 
Leaders of the Bolsheviki, who were secretly in the pay of the 
Germans, declared the war with Germany at an end, and 
proceeded to disband what was left of the army. Germany, 
however, had no intention of accepting the Bolshevik idea 
that war with Russia was over until she had gained even 
greater advantage from the sad plight of that country. 
German armies penetrated farther and farther into Russian 
territory. Then, early in 1918, the Bolshevik government 
agreed to a treaty with Germany whereby Russia gave up 
an immense stretch of territory extending from Finland, 
through Poland and Ukrania, to the Black Sea. In the 
territory passed over to German control were all the best 
seaports of Russia, all her industrial cities, most of her 
mineral lands, and much of her grain fields. 

Roumania, deserted by Russia, was beyond the reach of 
aid from her other allies. She was forced to make a treaty 
of peace, giving the Central Powers her wheat fields and oil 
regions. The surrender of Russia and Roumania released 
many more troops for the Central Powers to use on other 
fronts. 


514 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

The Great German Drive (1918). — Though Germany's 
“ Mittel Europa” had apparently, through the surrender of 
Russia and Roumania, grown to an amazing extent, the 
German war lords knew that to hold what they had gained 
they must win a victorious peace, and to win such a peace 
they must destroy the allied resistence on the western front 
before the American army was ready to take an effective 
part in the war. They realized the fact, which they con¬ 
cealed from the people, that submarine warfare had failed 
to prevent American soldiers and American war material 
from arriving in France. 

General Ludendorff was selected to command the Germans 
in the forthcoming campaign. The men brought from 
Russia and Roumania and all that could be spared else- 
where reenforced the army on the western front for the 
purpose of throwing against the allied line a great mass of 
troops that would crush it by sheer weight of numbers. The 
first blow fell, on March 21, 1918, upon the British, who 
were unable to withstand such a terrible onslaught and were 
driven out of their trenches. The falling back of the British 
compelled all the Allies to leave their trenches and retreat, 
for otherwise the Germans might have driven a wedge so 
deep that the allied armies would have been separated. With 
the trenches left behind, the fighting was now in the open 0 
Valiantly struggling against tremendous odds, the Allies 
retreated thirty-five miles farther into France. 

The Germans had used in the drive their best troops who 
were so exhausted by their effort that they had to rest. A 
month later the Germans again attacked the British in an 
attempt to reach the ports on the English Channel where 
they might stop the shipment of men and munitions to 
France. The British were forced so near to the Channel 
that General Haig told them that they must fight as if their 
backs were to the wall, for all would be lost if they retreated 
farther. The sorely pressed Britons responded by making 
such a brave stand that the Germans failed to reach the 
ports. 


THE FREE NATIONS TRIUMPHANT 


515 

Foch in Supreme Command of the Allies. — Since the 
beginning of the war the forces of the allied nations had been 
fighting as separate armies, each with its own commander; 
and as a consequence their movements often did not fit well 
together. The Central Powers had from the first followed 
the wiser plan of having 
one commander who di¬ 
rected the movements of 
all their armies. The re¬ 
treat of the Allies before the 
great German drive made 
it plainer than ever that 
they should be under a su¬ 
preme commander, or gen¬ 
eralissimo. All the allied 
nations agreed upon the 
French general, Ferdinand 
Foch, for this important 
position. 

The French Driven Back. 

—When Haig and his Brit¬ 
ish troops stopped the drive toward the Channel ports, the 
Germans again rested for a month; then, they struck in 
mass the French army with the hope of reaching Paris. 
The French in their turn were compelled to give way before 
the blow. Fighting step by step they were driven to the 
river Marne, a few miles from Paris. The Germans were 
now where they had been when checked in their attempt 
early in the war to capture the French capital. Their biggest 
guns threw shells into the city. 

The drive had lasted three months and, owing to their 
method of mass attack, the Germans had lost about five 
hundred thousand men. Although the loss to the Allies 
in men was not so great, yet it was enormous, and the situ¬ 
ation had become perilous for them. The Germans pushed 
on across the Marne and Paris seemed doomed; but at last 
the French, with the aid of a small force of American marines 



Ferdinand Foch 


516 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

and infantry who had been rushed to their assistance, were 
able to hold their ground. 

Chateau-Thierry. — The Americans had been placed near 
the village of Chateau-Thierry, where their thin line was all 
that stood between the Germans and Paris. Courageously 
they held the enemy, June 5 and 6, 1918, inflicting upon 
them heavy losses. This was the first time that Americans 
had taken an important part in battle, and the way in which 
they repulsed the Germans showed that, though not veterans, 
they could be relied upon. 

Americans Pouring into France. — When the United 
States entered the war the Allies asked for food as the first 
need; when the German drive began there came a greater 
need for quick reenforcements, which the allied countries 
after four years of exhausting fighting could not furnish. At 
the request of the Allies the United States hurried troops 
over. The situation became a race between Germany trying 
to win a decisive victory before enough Americans arrived 
in France to prevent it and the United States trying to get 
men there in time. 

The Second Marne; Turn of the Tide.—When the 
Germans reached the Marne nearly two million American 
soldiers had already landed in France and others were pour¬ 
ing in at the rate of two hundred thousand a month. Those 
of the longest training — some four hundred thousand — 
were on the battle line, distributed among British and 
French troops. Foch believed that the time had come for 
a counter attack. On July 18 the French and Americans 
struck the Germans on the flank and promptly drove them 
back six or eight miles. Following up the attack the French 
and Americans made farther advance each day. Though the 
Germans contested obstinately for every foot of ground they 
gave up, by the end of July they had been driven away from 
the Marne. Once more Paris had been saved by a battle 
fought on this historic stream. 

The three months of the German drive had been months 
of suspense. The world had watched with gravest anxiety 


THE FREE NATIONS TRIUMPHANT 


517 


the headlong rush of the German hordes, yet hoped that 
each day would bring it to a stop. When the contest on the 
Marne resulted in the retreat of the Germans the world 
breathed freer. America was thrilled by the conduct of 
her soldiers. In the second Marne a greater number of 
Americans were engaged than in any previous battle. 

,Foch Continues the Offensive. — Having saved Paris, 
Foch kept on with his offensive with the view to hurling 
the enemy back into Germany. LudendorfFs use of his 
best troops in his massed attacks had caused a great slaughter 
of these veterans, and the force of the sledge-hammer blows 
had spent the strength of those remaining. Foch adopted 
the plan of striking at different points simultaneously or 
in quick succession. In this way the enemy could find no 
time to rest; nor could one part of their line give assistance 
to another. Whether the attacks occurred at adjacent 
or widely separated points, all were parts of one great battle 
extending along the whole front of six hundred miles. 

The Advance on the Center. — The British and the 
French, the latter assisted by the Americans, continued to 
assault the Germans on the center of the line. All through 
August the fighting went on fiercely. By the first week in 
September the French and Americans had driven the enemy 
to the line which the French had occupied before the 
Germans began their drive in the spring. 

Back to the Hindenburg Line. — Meanwhile the British 
had attacked farther north. Before the end of August they 
had pressed back the Germans to the old Hindenburg line 
and had even pierced the famous line slightly in two or three 
places. 

St. Mihiel. — A sufficient number of American troops had 
by this time been trained well enough for them to be used in 
battle as an organization distinct from the other allied 
armies. They were formed by General Pershing into the 
first American army and were placed by General Foch near 
the southern end of the allied front. In this region the 
German line was thrust forward in a sharp projection known 


518 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

as the St. Mihiel salient. As long as the enemy held this 
salient it was a source of danger to allied forces advancing 
on other sectors. In a battle of four days (September 12-i 5) 
the Americans succeeded in wiping out the salient by forcing 
the Germans back eight miles on a front of thirty miles. 

The battle of St. Mihiel — the first that Americans had 
fought as a separate army — was not large when compared 
with other battles of the great war; yet in this battle more 
men were engaged on each side than were engaged on both 
sides in any battle that an American army had ever fought 
before. The Germans were beginning to realize their mis¬ 
take of having held in contempt the fighting qualities of the 
Americans. 

Smashing the Hindenburg Line. — The success of the 
British in reaching the Hindenburg line and of the Americans 
in abolishing the St. Mihiel salient enabled Foch to press 
the advance with greater vigor. Ludendorff had hoped to 
make a stand behind the Hindenburg line, but after a few 
days of furious battle the British pounded the line to pieces. 
Driving the Germans before them they captured Cambrai on 
October 9. American troops, fighting with the British, were 
the first to break through the Hindenburg line. 

Argonne Forest. — After the battle of St. Mihiel the 
American army advanced on the right of the French. 
On September 26 the Americans engaged the en¬ 
emy. Pushing forward they reached the Argonne Forest, 
where the Germans had placed some of their best troops 
to protect their railroad communications. Considering the 
obstacles to be overcome the battle in the Argonne Forest 
was one of the most difficult operations of the war. The 
Americans suffered severe losses as they fought their way 
through thick woods and undergrowth entangled with 
barbed wire and infested with machine guns. By the 
first week in October they had passed beyond the forest. 
By the middle of the month they had broken the old, 
fortified line of the Germans and, in conjunction with the 
French army were moving on toward the frontier of France* 


THE FREE NATIONS TRIUMPHANT 


515 

The Germans in Full Retreat. — While British, French, 
and Americans were driving the Germans out of France, 
British and Belgians attacked them in Flanders, compelling 
them to give up considerable territory in Belgium. Before 
the middle of October the whole German army on the 
western front was in full retreat. Although the Germans 
had fought stubbornly all the way back from the Marne 
and were not yet overwhelmed, their morale was gone. They 
had put all their strength and hope in their great drive ° 
and when it failed they had shot their last bolt. 

On Other Fronts. — The Austrians in Italy had, in June, 
crossed the Piave River in an offensive against the Italians, 
which was intended to be a part of the German drive; but 
they had been disastrously routed and hurled in confusion 
across the river. The Italians, in a counter offensive, were 
advancing toward the Austrian border and the demoralized 
Austrian army was unable to stop them. An allied army 
moving northward through Serbia was threatening Bul¬ 
garia. British armies in Asia, which in 1917 had captured 
Bagdad and Jerusalem, were penetrating the heart of the 
Turkish empire in the direction of Constantinople. Austria, 
Bulgaria, and Turkey, with their resources for war exhausted 
and their people facing starvation, were eager for peace. 
Bulgaria was the first to give up, surrendering on September 
30,1918. 

Germany Asks for Peace. — The German war lords 
saw their scheme of world domination crumbling. They 
knew that their other allies would soon follow the example of 
Bulgaria and desert them as rats desert a sinking ship; and 
that then there would be invasions of Germany not only 
from the west by the allied armies in France and Belgium, 
but from the south by the allied armies in Italy, the Balkan 
country, and Asia. They knew that all the reserve man 
power of Germany had already been used in the army, that 
materials for war were running short, and that the food 
supplies expected from Russia and Roumania had failed on 
account of the disordered condition of these countries, 


520 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

They saw about them the German people, pinched by 
hunger and mourning for their millions of dead, fearful 
of even worse to come with the final defeat of their armies 0 
They heard murmurings of discontent and even threats of 
revolution. 

Early in October the German Chancellor sent to President 
Wilson a note asking him to take up with the allied govern¬ 
ments the question of an armistice — that is, a cessation of 
hostilities — with the view to making a treaty of peace. 
President Wilson had already declared the terms upon 
which the United States would make peace: and in his note 
to the President the Chancellor announced that Germany 
would accept them. 

President Wilson’s “ Fourteen Points.” — The terms 
upon which President Wilson had declared that the United 
States would agree to peace were fourteen in number, and 
they came to be commonly spoken of as his “ fourteen points.” 
Among them were: No more secret treaties or understand¬ 
ings between nations; free navigation of the seas alike in 
peace and war; reduction of armaments; disposition of the 
captured German colonies to be made with consideration 
for their populations; restoration of Belgium and evacua¬ 
tion of all foreign territory occupied by Germany and her 
associates; righting of the wrong done to France in the 
seizure by Prussia, in 1871, of Alsace and Lorraine, and the 
return to Italy of all territory properly Italian; protection 
of the rights of small nations and subject nations; formation 
of a league of nations for the purpose of making secure the 
independence of great and small nations alike. President 
Wilson’s purpose was to compel fair dealing among nations 
in the future and thus prevent another such catastrophe as 
the World War. 

The Armistice. — President Wilson referred Germany’s 
request for an armistice to the allied governments who agreed, 
with a few modifications, to the fourteen points and turned 
over to the military authorities the matter of arranging the 
details of the armistice. The conditions as decided upon 


THE FREE NATIONS TRIUMPHANT 


521 


for the armistice required that Germany should evacuate 
all occupied territory and give up Alsace and Lorraine; 
disarm a large part of her army and turn the arms over to 
the Allies; surrender all her submarines and part of her high 
seas fleet. To enforce these conditions the allied armies 
were to occupy certain strategic portions of German territory. 

The conditions of the armistice were such as to make it 
impossible for Germany to renew the war if she should wish 
to reject the final terms of peace. Germany accepted the 
conditions, and hostilities, by land, in the air, and on the 
sea, ceased on the day set for the armistice to begin, 
November 11, 1918. 

Turkey had already surrendered on October 31 and 
Austria on November 4. 

Last Phases of the War. — During the month that 
negotiations for the armistice were in progress the allied 
advance had not slackened. The Germans had been driven 
practically out of France and much of Belgium had been 
taken from them. Only four days before the armistice went 
into effect the Americans had retaken the famous French 
city of Sedan, a few miles within the border, which is the 
key to one of the only two railway systems remaining to 
the Germans in their retreat. When hostilities ceased 
the Allies stood ready to cross into Germany and march 
on to Berlin. 

Cost of the War in Lives and Money. — It is estimated 
that in the World War seven million men were killed in 
battle or died in service. Nearly nineteen million were 
wounded, many of them being disabled for life. Russia 
suffered the largest loss, and Germany next, though in pro* 
portion to population France lost more than either. The 
United States, on account of the short time that it par¬ 
ticipated in the war, suffered the smallest loss of the leading 
belligerents; yet the number of Americans who were killed 
or who died in the service was about seventy thousand, and 
the number of wounded about two hundred thousand. 

To the appalling death toll must be added the countless 


522 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

number of civilians who were killed or who died from ill 
treatment or disease in the areas overrun by Germany and 
her associates. 

The combined cost to all the governments for carrying on 
the war was about two hundred billion dollars. The cost 
to Great Britain and Germany was about thirty-five billions 
each, and to the United States more than twenty billions. 
In addition each of these countries loaned money to other 
belligerents. The United States loaned to the Allies about 
eight billion dollars. 

The loss to property in the war areas, where Germany and 
her associates ruthlessly destroyed cities and villages, fac¬ 
tories, mines and other industries, amounted to very many 
billions of dollars. The inhabitants of these regions were 
left in such destitute condition that, after hostilities ceased, 
the Congress of the United States appropriated one hundred 
million dollars to feed them. 

The Peace Conference at Paris ( 1919 ). — The world 
came from out of the war as from a long nightmare. The 
carnage of battle where millions of men fought and died, the 
ruined cities and wasted fields where famine and pestilence 
prevailed, the four years of agony such as had never been 
known before could not be forgotten; but now that the war 
had ended with the overthrow of autocracy the world turned 
with hope to the future. Hereafter democracy must stand 
united for the rights of man. 

The thing first to be done was to fix upon terms of peace. 
For this purpose delegates from the victorious nations met, 
in January, 1919, in a conference at Paris. President Wilson 
headed the delegation from the United States. This was 
the first time that a President had left the bounds of the 
country for more than a day or so. Since only a just peace 
would be lasting and since both the Allies and the Central 
Powers had accepted as the basis for such a peace the prin¬ 
ciples outlined by him, President Wilson deemed it his duty 
to attend the conference that these principles might be 
clearly set forth. The United States, wishing no territorial 


THE FREE NATIONS TRIUMPHANT 


523 


or other gains from the war, was in the best position to urge 
terms of peace that would do justice to all nations, great and 
small alike. 

Topics and Questions 

1. Tell of the military movements in 1917. Describe the condition 
of Russia in 1917. Describe the Bolsheviki. Relate the details of 
Russia’s surrender in 1918. In what situation did the allied armies 
find themselves at the end of 1917 and the beginning of 1918? 

2. Give an account of the great German drive of 1918. Why did 
the Allies need a supreme commander? Who was selected? Why 
do you think Foch was selected for this important position? 

3. Why is Chateau-Thierry a name that fills Americans with pride? 
When, where and how did the tide turn in favor of the Allies? How 
did the British, French and Americans follow up the victory at the 
second battle of the Marne? 

4. Tell of the British at the Hindenburg line and of the Americans 
at St. Mihiel. What effect did these successes have upon the contest 
as a whole? 

5. Who smashed the Hindenburg line? Who won the battle of 
Argonne Forest? What was the condition of the German army at 
the middle of October, 1918? Describe the events on other fronts. 

6. Tell in detail why Germany asked for peace. To whom 
Germany make its appeal? Explain President Wilson’s “fourteen" 
points.” What is meant by an armistice? When did the armistice 
with Germany go into effect? What had happened in the meantime 
to Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria? Describe the last phases of the 
war. 

7. What can you tell about the cost in lives of the World War? In 
money? Give the viewpoint of the world at the end of the war. Why 
did President Wilson attend the Peace Conference at Paris? 

Project Exercises 

Which do you think was the better general, Foch or Ludendorff? 
Give your reasons. 

Important Dates: 

1917. The Bolsheviki seize the government of Russia. 

1918. The great German drive; battles of Chateau-Thierry, Second 

Marne, St. Mihiel and Argonne Forest. 

1918. November 11. The Armistice, ending hostilities in tin 

World War. 

1919. Meeting of the Peace Conference at Paris. 


CHAPTER XLVI 
THE OPENING OF A NEW ERA 

A Changed World. — The upheaval caused by the World 
War brought about such profound changes — changes 
affecting the remotest parts of the globe — that the war 
may be said to mark the end of an era of the world’s history 
and the beginning of another. 

Europe in Confusion* — All the world was left in an un¬ 
settled condition. In Europe, where most of the fighting 
occurred, confusion was greatest. Every belligerent nation 
was heavily in debt, the inhabitants of the devastated areas 
were still destitute, and even in parts of central and eastern 
Europe that hostile armies had not touched, people were 
starving because in those regions commerce and manufactur¬ 
ing had practically ceased and agriculture was at a low ebb. 

The Rise of New Governments. — In central and east¬ 
ern Europe new governments had taken the place of the 
old, and they were as yet very unstable. The German 
and Austrian emperors had abdicated and fled for safety, 
the former to Holland and the latter to Switzerland, 
Germany had become a republic, but some of the dissatis¬ 
fied inhabitants were attempting to overthrow the new 
government by revolutions. The Austrian empire had 
collapsed. Austria proper had become a republic, and the 
other parts of the empire had separated largely on racial 
lines, some to form independent republics and others to join 
already established nations of their kindred. Russia con¬ 
tinued to suffer from the excesses of the Bolsheviki, and in 
the southern and western parts of that immense country 
several republics had sprung up. 

Of the new European republics, besides Germany and 
524 


THE OPENING OF A NEW ERA 


525 


Austria, the most important are Poland, formed from the 
territory of the ancient kingdom of Poland which had been 
seized by Germany, Austria, and Russia; Finland formed 
from Russia; Czecho-Slavia and Hungary, formed from 
the Austrian empire. The southern section of the Austrian 
empire, including Bosnia and Herzegovina (see pages 433 
and 477), joined Serbia and Montenegro in forming a 
greater Serbia under the name of Jugo (South) Slavia. 

Conditions in America. 1 — In the United States there was 
much unrest. Prices, which had gone up excessively dur¬ 
ing the war, had not come down after the signing of the armis¬ 
tice, as it was expected they would; on the contrary, they 
continued to go upward, with the result that the high cost 
of living had become a most serious problem. 

Among the many causes for high prices were “ profiteer¬ 
ing ” — that is, the making of enormous profits by manu¬ 
facturers and merchants; the high wages paid labor and 
the failure of labor to produce enough to keep the public 
supplied with what it needed; the inflation of the currency, 
making a dollar worth less than formerly; and the extrava¬ 
gance of the public in buying. 

The constant demands of labor for increased wages to 
meet the increased cost of living added to the problem. 
If wages were raised, prices immediately went higher; if 
wages were not raised, the* union frequently struck and then 
prices went higher. 

When in November, 1919, the coal miners went on a strike 
the country was brought, as winter was approaching, face 
to face with the possibility of a nation-wide coal famine. 
The government tried, through the courts, to bring the 
strike to an end, but with little success. Finally, President 

1 The army of nearly four million men that America had so quickly 
raised for the war was even more quickly disbanded. Soon after the 
armistice was signed our troops began coming back from Europe, and 
within a year practically every soldier, except those serving in the 
regular army, had been mustered out and had returned to the usual 
walks of life. 


526 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Wilson persuaded the miners to return to work upon his 
promise to appoint a commission to decide upon a just com¬ 
pensation for them. 

Agitation by Radicals. — Some of the extreme Socialists, 
mostly persons of foreign birth, were increasing the unrest. 
They openly advocated the overthrowing of the United 
States government by force, the taking over of all indus¬ 
tries by labor, and the establishing in this country of a 
government similar to that of the Bolsheviki in Russia. 
Labor, in the main, denounced these radical utterances 
The government arrested many of the radicals and deported 
to Russia some of the leaders, who were unnaturalized 
foreigners. 

A New Viewpoint. — Though industrial relations in the 
United States seemed awry, yet there had come out of the 
war a clearer understanding of the relations between capital 
and labor and the public that promises in time to make 
these relations better than they have ever been. 

The government, in controlling the railroads and othei 
industries during the war, had found it necessary to set aside 
many of the restrictions that laws had hitherto hedged 
around business. No better evidence was needed to prove 
that many of these restrictions had handicapped business 
while they had not benefited the public. The result is that 
a more liberal attitude is now assumed by the people toward 
capital and “ big business.” 

At the same time there has come a deeper realization of 
what is owed to labor. It is now universally conceded that 
the laboring man should have proper working conditions 
and a wage sufficient for him and his family to live in comfort 

On the other hand, a third party — the general public — 
which vastly outnumbers capital and labor combined, is to 
be considered. Capital should not inflict injury upon the 
public by shutting down its factories, shops, or mines for the 
purpose of increasing prices or lowering wages, nor should 
labor use its right to strike in order to secure increased 
wages when the strike will endanger the life of the people 


THE OPENING OP A NEW ERA 527 

Prohibition; Woman Suffrage. — The war gave decided 
impetus to two reforms that had long been advocated in 
the United States. Prohibitionists, urging that the traffic 
in intoxicating liquors interfered with making the men of 
our army fit for fighting, persuaded Congress to pass a law 
forbidding the sale of such liquors from July 1, 1919, until 
the end of the war and thereafter until the army had been 
demobilized. Before the date arrived for the wartime 
prohibition to go into effect, Congress passed an amend¬ 
ment to the Constitution permanently prohibiting the 
manufacture or sale of intoxicating liquors in the United 
States or its territorial possessions. A sufficient number of 
states ratified the amendment and it went into effect on 
January 16, 1920. 

American women had done such splendid work in the 
war, not only in the battle area, where they nursed the 
wounded and sick, but also at home, where in office and in 
shop, in factory and on the farm they took the places of 
the men who had gone into the army, that many who had 
formerly looked with disfavor upon woman suffrage were 
converted tc the belief that women are capable of the re¬ 
sponsibility and entitled to the privilege of the ballot. Con¬ 
gress, listening to the advocates of woman suffrage passed, 
in 1919, an amendment to the Constitution granting women 
the right to vote everywhere in the United States on the 
same basis as men. Before the end of the summer of 1920 
the woman suffrage amendment was ratified by the number 
of states sufficient to put it into effect. 

Advancement of Aviation. — The varied uses made of the 
aeroplane in carrying on the war showed that aviation could 
be of great service in peaceful pursuits. In the spring of 
1919 Lieutenant-Commander A. C. Read, of the United 
States Navy, and a crew of five men flew in a seaplane from 
Rockaway, New York, to Plymouth, England, making 
stops in the Azores and in Spain and Portugal. The time 
consumed in flying was a little less than two days and a half. 
This feat was soon afterward eclipsed by Captain John 


528 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

Alcock and Lieutenant Arthur W. Brown, the former a 
British and the latter an American aviator. These officers 
flew in a biplane straight across the Atlantic Ocean, from 
Newfoundland to Ireland, in 16 hours and 12 minutes. 

Already, though as yet to a limited extent, the United 
States government is using the aeroplane for carrying mail 
between cities of this country, and people are using it for 
short pleasure trips. 

The Treaties of Peace. — Meanwhile the delegates from 
all the countries at war with Germany and her associates, 
who had gathered in conference at Paris, in January, 1919, 
for the purpose of fixing the terms of the treaties of peace, 
had been steadily at work. Theirs was a gigantic task, for 
they were called upon to bring a just and durable peace to 
a distracted world — to settle satisfactorily the conflicting 
claims of many nations without sacrificing the principles of 
democracy for which the war had been fought. 

Most of the work of the conference was done by the dele¬ 
gations from the five great powers, the United States, Great 
Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. President Wilson took 
a most prominent part. Upon his insistence a plan for a 
League of Nations to promote the future peace of the world 
was made a part of the treaty despite the opposition of some 
of the statesmen of Europe, who preferred to rely upon the 
old system of a balance of power, though this system had 
bred wars instead of preventing them. 

The treaty with Germany was completed first and was 
signed on June 28, 1919. Among other features, besides 
the League of Nations, this treaty provides for the payment 
by Germany for the wilful damages she had inflicted upon 
allied countries, rearranges her boundaries, fixes her military 
status so that she cannot soon make war again, and recog¬ 
nizes the independence of some of the new republics. The 
treaties made soon afterward with Austria and Bulgaria are 
similar to the one made with Germany. 

The League of Nations. — The plan for the League of 
Nations calls for a loose confederation of all the nations of 


THE OPENING OF A NEW ERA 529 

the world (except Germany and her three associates in the 
war, together with Russia, Costa Rica, San Domingo, and 
Mexico, though provision is made for the admission of these 
countries into the League in the future). Under the plan 
the nations agree upon mutual concessions for the purpose of 
making war less probable, such as leaving to the league the 
arbitration of questions in dispute between nations and the 
supervision of the armaments of nations. 

When in the summer of 1919, President Wilson submitted 
the treaty with Germany to the United States Senate for 
ratification, it met with opposition in that body — mainly 
on account of the League of Nations. Though the Senate 
did not divide strictly on party lines, most of the Republican 
Senators thought it advisable to add certain reservations to 
the plan of the League to preserve the sovereignty of the 
United States, while a majority of the Democratic Senators, 
thinking the reservations unnecessary, favored accepting the 
plan as submitted. A small number of Senators, mostly 
Republicans and known as “irreconcilables,” were opposed 
to a League of Nations in any form. President Wilson, 
of course, wished the acceptance of the plan as it stood. 

After months of debate the Senate became deadlocked 
over the treaty, for the two thirds vote necessary for rati¬ 
fication could not be obtained for the League of Nations 
with or without reservations. Because of its failure to reach 
an agreement regarding reservations to the League, the 
Senate finally rejected the treaty with Germany and re¬ 
turned it to President Wilson (March 19, 1920). 

The People Pass Upon the League of Nations. — In the 
meantime all the countries that had been at war with Ger¬ 
many had accepted the peace treaty and, together with 
the neutral countries invited to do so, had joined the League 
of Nations. Thus the United States, alone of the nations 
eligible to membership in the League, stood aloof. More¬ 
over, by the refusal of the Senate to ratify the treaties made 
at Paris, the United States continued, though hostilities 
had ceased, technically at war with Germany and Austria, 


530 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

The question of whether or not the United States should 
join the League of Nations had aroused so much interest 
among the people that it became an issue in the campaign 
of 1920 for the election of a President. The Democratic 
platform advocated that the United States become a 
member of the League of Nations; the Republican plat¬ 
form declared that, while the 
United States should form 
with other nations a league, 
or association, for preserving 
the peace of the world, it 
should not join the League as 
planned in the peace treaty. 
James M. Cox, of Ohio, was 
nominated for President by 
the Democrats, and Warren G. 
Harding, of Ohio, by the 
Republicans. 

In the election of 1920 all 
women were, for the first 
time in our history, permitted 
to vote, and for this reason 
the number of votes cast was 
very much larger than in any preceding election. Harding 
was elected by an overwhelming majority. Though other 
issues entered into the campaign, yet, since the League 
of Nations was the chief issue, the great majority given 
Harding left no doubt that, while the people might be 
willing for the United States to join a league to maintain 
peace, they did not approve of the League of Nations in 
the form in which it appeared in the peace treaty. 

Congress Declares War at an End. — As stated (see page 
529), the refusal of the Senate, through its opposition to the 
League of Nations, to ratify the treaties of peace left the 
United States technically at war with Germany and Austria. 
To remedy this unnatural situation Congress, soon after 
the inauguration of President Harding and nearly three 



Warren G. Harding 


THE OPENING OF A NEW ERA 


531 


years after hostilities had ceased, passed a resolution declar¬ 
ing war between Germany and the United States and war 
between Austria and the United States at an end. 

The Armament Conference. — While the World War was 
in progress it was hoped that the suffering it brought in 
its train would cause the people of Europe to do everything 
they could, at least for a long time, to prevent future wars. 
Soon after the World War ended, however, and despite 
the misery that had fallen upon the people of Europe, 
many of the European nations began, either from fear 01 
suspicion of one another, to raise large armies and build 
great navies. Even the United States had started upon a 
program for building a great navy. 

A great navy is not only, on account of its cost, a burden 
to the people, but by giving a nation a sense of strength, it 
may be a fruitful cause of war. President Harding believed 
that, although the United States had refused to join the 
League of Nations, this country should lead in bringing 
about a curtailment of the building of navies. He, there¬ 
fore, asked other nations to send delegates to meet in confer¬ 
ence with delegates of the United States at Washington on 
the third anniversary of the Armistice, November 11, 1921. 

The “Four Power ” Treaty. — The invitation was cor¬ 
dially accepted, and the conference remained in session 
three months. The first treaty agreed upon was one 
between the United States, Great Britain, France, and 
Japan. Each of these countries has possessions in the 
Pacific Ocean. Trade with the Far East had developed a 
keen rivalry between nations that might lead to war, and 
in this event a nation’s far-distant possessions in the 
Pacific, unless guarded by a strong navy, might be seized 
by an enemy nation. By the “ four power ” treaty the 
four countries named agreed to respect one another’s rights 
to their possessions in the Pacific and to confer together 
as to the best way to meet an attack upon such possessions, 
should one be made by a nation not a party to the treaty. 
The “ four power ” treaty also put an end to an alliance 


532 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

between Great Britain and Japan, which had been in 
existence for some years and which gave these two nations 
jointly a great advantage in naval power in the Pacific. 
It was necessary that the treaty safeguarding the Pacific 
possessions of the four great powers be made before these 
powers could be expected to agree to limit their navies. 

The Limitation of Armaments Treaty. — With the way 
thus opened, delegates from the five powers having large 
navies, — the United States, Great Britain, France, Japan, 
and Italy, — entered upon a treaty in which each of the 
powers agreed that the size of its navy should not exceed 
the limit put upon it by the treaty. The limit in the case 
of each country was put at a point considered necessary 
for self-defense. The treaty is to remain in force until 
1936. The limitation that the great powers willingly put 
upon the size of their navies is undoubtedly a long step in 
the direction of securing peace for the world, and it gives 
strength to the hope that in the near future plans will be 
agreed upon for the reduction of large armies; for large 
armies are also a fruitful cause of war. 

The “Open Door ” in China. — The rich trade with 
China had also been for a long time a source of ill feel¬ 
ing between nations. Because China is weak and cannot 
protect herself, often other nations, in their eagerness for 
trade, have disregarded the rights of that country. Often, 
too, a nation has paid little heed to the rights of other 
nations in trade with China. The five great powers who had 
signed the armament treaty joined with other nations hav¬ 
ing considerable trade with China in a treaty that guaran¬ 
tees the independence of China and forbids one nation 
securing from China concessions in trade that will give it 
unfair advantage over other nations. The policy of secur¬ 
ing for all nations equal opportunities for trade is called 
the “open door,” and the United States had long advocated 
this policy in respect to China. The several treaties that 
grew out of the Armament Conference are the outstanding 
accomplishment of President Harding’s administration. 


THE OPENING OF A NEW ERA 


533 

Death of Harding; Coolidge Becomes President.— 

While returning from a visit to Alaska, where he had gone 
to study conditions in that distant territory, President 
Harding was taken ill. 

He died in San Francisco 
on August 2, 1923. The 
news of the death of Pres¬ 
ident Harding shocked 
the country. Through his 
affection for the people he 
had won their affection. 

A few hours after Harding 
died, Calvin Coolidge, of 
Massachusetts, the Vice- 
President, took the oath 
of office as President of 
the United States. 

The Ruhr Question. — 

For some time before his 
death President Harding 
had been trying to aid 
in settling the troubles in 
Europe that were threatening the peace and prosperity of 
the world. 

A commission, known as the “ reparations commission,” 
representing different nations having claims against Germany 
and acting under the treaty of peace made at Paris, had 
declared that Germany had defaulted in the payment of 
reparations due other nations for illegal damages done dur¬ 
ing the World War (see page 528). Thereupon, France and 
Belgium, claiming the right to do so under the treaty, sent 
troops into the Ruhr, the industrial section of Germany, 
and seized the coal mines, factories, and railroads. France 
and Belgium hoped by taking charge of these industries to 
secure the reparations due them. The purpose failed, for 
the Germans, claiming that they had paid all reparations 
they could and resenting the invasion of their territory. 



534 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

refused to work the industries while foreign officials were 
in charge. The feeling of the Germans towards the French 
and the Belgians was much embittered. 

Meanwhile, the financial condition of Germany was going 
from bad to worse. Following the World War the German 
government issued so much paper currency that the money 
became almost worthless. Prices rose enormously, business 
was in confusion, and there was much unemployment and 
misery. The business of the rest of the world also suffered 
because other countries could not sell their products in 
Germany on account of its unsettled condition. 

America Takes a Hand. — Since the reparations com¬ 
mission was con.'posed of statesmen and diplomats, who 
naturally looked at the question mainly from a political 
standpoint, President Harding believed that the surest way 
to put Germany on a sound basis and enable the reparations 
to be paid would be to refer the question to a committee of 
expert business men who would seek to solve it in a busi¬ 
nesslike way. He therefore suggested, through his Secretary 
of State, that such a committee be formed. The leading 
nations having claims against Germany for reparations 
agreed to the suggestion and appointed as members of the 
committee men who were experts in business or finance. As 
the committee was to work under the provisions of the 
treaty of peace made at Paris, which the United States 
has refused to ratify, our government could not appoint 
official members of the committee. However, three Ameri¬ 
cans of well-known business ability attended its meetings 
as unofficial members. 

The “Dawes Plan.” — The committee began its sessions 
early in the year 1924. It met part of the time in Paris 
and part in Berlin, and in the spring of the same year re¬ 
ported a plan of settlement. The chairman of the com¬ 
mittee was an American banker, General Charles G. Dawes, 
and for this reason the plan has been given his name. 

The “ Dawes plan ” provided for giving Germany a sound 
currency by the withdrawal of all German paper money then 


THE OPENING OF A NEW ERA 


535 


in circulation and the establishment of a bank which alone, 
and under strong safeguards, should issue money. It pro¬ 
vided for the payment of reparations by the setting 
aside every year of certain revenues received by Germany. 
Another feature of the plan was that other countries should 
.end to Germany two hundred million dollars, a part of 
which was to be used in starting the bank and the other 
part to be used by the German government in paying the 
reparations immediately due. 

The “Dawes Plan” Goes into Effect. — All nations 
having reparation claims against Germany promptly ac¬ 
cepted the Dawes plan. Germany also agreed to it. The 
two hundred million dollar loan for Germany was easily 
raised in other countries, Americans lending half the amount. 

As a part of the agreement, France and Belgium began, 
as soon as the plan went into effect, to withdraw their 
troops from the Ruhr. It is believed that the Dawes plan 
will bring prosperity and good-will to Europe and hence 
to the world. Once again has it been shown that the 
United States can not hold aloof from world affairs. 

Coolidge Elected President. — In the election of 1924, 
President Coolidge, the Republican candidate, was elected 
President for the term beginning March 4, 1925. The 
Democratic candidate was John W. Davis of West Virginia. 
Some persons, regarding both the Republican and Demo¬ 
cratic parties as too conservative, put up as their candidate, 
Robert M. LaFollette, of Wisconsin. The people seemed 
to think that the country was doing well enough under 
Coolidge, for they gave him an immense majority over his 
two opponents, both in the popular vote and in the electoral 
college. 

The World Court. — As a means of preventing war the 
Leagite of Nations had provided for a permanent Court of 
International Justice, commonly called the World Court, to 
which nations might refer disputes arising between them for 
settlement according to international law. The plan of the 
Court was drafted by eminent lawyers selected from different 


536 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

parts of the world, among them Elihu Root, of New York. 
The Court was organized in 1922 and forty-seven nations 
had joined it by 1927. An American, John Bassett Moore, 
of Columbia University, is one of the judges of the Court. 

Shortly before his death (1923), President Harding had 
recommended that the United States become a member of 
the World Court. President Coolidge made the same recom¬ 
mendation. The “ irreconcilables ” who had prevented the 
United States from joining the League of Nations (see page 
529) opposed participation in the Court on the ground that 
it was a step which might lead to drawing the United States 
into the League. After much delay the Senate voted (1926) 
to join the Court with certain reservations. One of the 
reservations prohibited the World Court from giving judg¬ 
ment on any question in which the United States has an 
interest without obtaining first the consent of the United 
States. This reservation would have given the United States 
the right to veto a judgment of the Court affecting this 
country, whereas the other nations had bound themselves 
to submit to judgments affecting them when made by a 
two-thirds majority of the Court. The League of Nations 
refused (1927) to accept the reservation, and, consequently, 
the United States remains outside a court for promoting 
international justice. 

Aviation and the Radio. — Most remarkable progress has 
been made in aviation since the World War (see page 527). 
In Europe airways have been established between many 
cities for carrying passengers by aeroplane. In 1920 the 
United States government established a transcontinental air¬ 
mail service from New York City to San Francisco, a dis¬ 
tance of 2,669 miles, and since then air-mail service has been 
extended over other routes. 

American and European aviators have engaged in gener¬ 
ous rivalry in establishing flying records. In 1924 four 
American planes left Seattle on a flight around the world. 
Two of the planes succeeded in circling the globe and return¬ 
ing to Seattle. The actual time consumed in flying around 


THE OPENING OF A NEW ERA 


537 


the world was a little more than fifteen days. In 1926 Com¬ 
mander Richard E. Byrd, of the American Navy, and Floyd 
Bennett, flew over the North Pole. 

Within the space of forty days, in the spring and summer 
of 1927, American aviators added greatly to their laurels. 
Charles A. Lindbergh, of the United States air-mail service, 
made a successful flight alone from New York to Paris in 
approximately thirty-three hours. A few days later Clarence 
D. Chamberlin, and Charles A. Levine, who accompanied 
him as a passenger, left New York on a flight to Berlin. 
They landed in Germany within a few miles of Berlin. After 
another interval of a few days, Lieutenants Lester J. Mait¬ 
land and Albert F. Hegenberger, of the American army, 
flew from San Francisco to Honolulu. While the flight over 
the Pacific was in progress, Commander Byrd and three com¬ 
panions hopped off from New York for Paris, for the purpose 
of gathering during the flight scientific information regard¬ 
ing the air that would be of value to aerial navigation. De¬ 
spite fogs and storms encountered most of the way they 
succeeded in reaching France with much scientific informa¬ 
tion. Each of these oceanic flights consumed less than two 
days. 

In another way, man is conquering the air. From the 
wireless telegraph and telephone (see pages 404 and 482) 
has come the radio. Through the means of an amplifier, 
sound of any kind is broadcasted over land and sea without 
the use of wires. A person at his home may now hear of the 
world’s happenings at the time of their occurrence or he may 
listen to a concert, a speech, a sermon, or a lecture coming 
from a distant point. Ships are using the radio for communi¬ 
cation at sea. Commander Byrd used in his flight to France 
a plane equipped with a radio through which he kept in 
touch with the rest of the world during nearly the whole 
voyage. His signals were heard 1600 miles away. 

The Kellogg-Briand Treaty Renouncing War. — In 1927 
the French Republic, through its Minister for Foreign 
Affairs, Aristide Briand, invited the United States to join 


538 HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 


with France in a treaty renouncing war as a national policy. 
The American Secretary of State, Frank B. Kellogg, replied 
favorably and suggested that all civilized nations be invited 
to become parties to the treaty. France accepted the sug¬ 
gestion, and in the summer of 1928 representatives from 
the most prominent nations, including Secretary Kellogg, 
met in Paris and agreed upon a treaty. Since then practically 
every civilized nation of the world has signed the treaty. 
It is hoped that the Kellogg-Briand treaty will do much 
toward putting a stop to war. 

Hoover Elected President. — In the election of 1928 the 



Republicans nominated as their candidate for President, 

Herbert C. Hoover, of Cal¬ 
ifornia, who was then Sec¬ 
retary of Commerce, and 
who had been, in the World 
War, Chairman of the Com¬ 
mission for Relief in Belgium 
and later U nited States 
Food Administrator. The 
Democrats nominated Al¬ 
fred E. Smith, who had four 
times been elected Governor 
of New York and who, while 
filling that office, had shown 
a remarkable grasp of gov- 
Herbert C. Hoover emmental affairs. While 

the platforms of the respec¬ 
tive political parties defined the issues upon which the leaders 
sought to wage the campaign, the people themselves raised 
many issues that affected so much the voting that it is 
impossible to say which issue, if any, was the controlling 
factor in deciding the election which resulted in the choice 
of Hoover by a large majority in both the electoral and the 
popular vote. 




THE OPENING OF A NEW ERA 


539 


Topics and Questions 

i. Explain why the World War marks the ending of an era and the 
beginning of another. 2. Describe the confusion in Europe following 
the World War. 

3. Give the chief reasons for the unrest in the United States. 
4. Mention some of the causes for high prices. 5. Show how radical 
agitators were adding to the unrest. 6. Describe the better under¬ 
standing of industrial relations that has come as a result of the war. 

7. How did the war help movements for reform in the United States? 

8. What progress has been made in aviation? 

9. Tell the story of the treaties of peace. 10. Explain the League 
of Nations. 11. What was the verdict of the people, in the election 
of 1920, upon the League of Nations? 

12. How was the war between Germany and the United States and 
the war between Austria and the United States formally brought to an 
end? 13. What was the Armament Conference? The "four power” 
treaty? The “Limitation of Armaments” treaty? 14. Explain what 
is meant by the “open door,” and tell how the policy came to be applied 
to China. 15. Who succeeded Harding in the Presidency? 16. What 
is meant by the “Dawes Plan?” 17. Who was elected President 
in 1924? 

18. Explain what is meant by the World Court and tell why the 
United States is not a member of it. 19. Tell about the radio. 
20. Explain the Kellogg-Briand treaty. 21. Tell about the Presidential 
election of 1928. 


540 LIST OF THE PRESIDENTS AND VICE-PRESIDENTS 



1 Died in office. 





























DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

In Congress, July 4, 1776 

A Declaration by the Representatives of the United Stales of America, in Congress 

Assembled 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people 
to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and 
to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and §qual station to 
which the laws of nature and of nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to 
the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which 
impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men are'created equal; 
that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that 
among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure 
these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers 
from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of government 
becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to 
abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such 
principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most 
likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that 
governments long established should not be changed for light and transient 
causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more dis¬ 
posed to suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing 
the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and 
usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce 
them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such 
government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has 
been the patient sufferance of these colonies; and such is now the necessity which 
constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of 
the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpa¬ 
tions, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over 
these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the 
public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing im¬ 
portance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; 
and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large distrlr' 

i 


/ 


u 


DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 


of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in 
the legislature, — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only, 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable 
and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of 
fatiguing them into compliance with his measure. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly 
firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to b( 
elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returnee 
to the people at large for their exercise; the state remaining, in the mean time, 
exposed to all the dangers of invasions from without and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for that pur¬ 
pose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners, refusing to pass 
others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new 
appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to 
laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, 
and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officen 
to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the consen t 
of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the 
civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to oui 
constitutions and unacknowledged by our laws, giving his assent to their acts 
of pretended legislation: 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which 
they should commit on the inhabitants of these states; 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; 

For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offenses; 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, 
establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, 
so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same 
absolute rule into these colonies; 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, 
fundamentally, the forms of our governments; 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with 
power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection am* 
waging war against us. 


DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE ixi 

Me has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and de- 
Otroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete 
the works of death, desolation, and tyranny already begun with circumstances 
of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally 
unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to 
bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and 
brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to bring 
on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known 
rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most 
humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated 
injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may 
define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We 
have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend 
an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the cir¬ 
cumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their 
native justice and magnanimity; and we have conjured them, by the ties of 
our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably 
interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to 
the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the 
necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest 
of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in General 
Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the recti¬ 
tude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people 
of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united colonies are, 
and of right ought to be, free and independent states; that they are absolved 
from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection be¬ 
tween them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; 
and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, 
conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts 
and things which independent states may of right do. And, for the support 
of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, 
we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor, 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 


We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, 
establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, 
promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and 
our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States 
of America. 

ARTICLE 1 

Section I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress 
of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and a House of Represent¬ 
atives. 

Sect. II. i. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members 
chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors 
in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most 
numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the 
age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he 
shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several 
States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective 
numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free 
persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding 
Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration 
shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the 
United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner 
as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed 
one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representa¬ 
tive; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire 
shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Provi¬ 
dence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Penn¬ 
sylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five. 
South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the Execu¬ 
tive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other 
officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Sect. HI. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 

iv 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


v 


Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years, and 
each Senator shall have one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first 
election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The 
seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the 
second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the 
third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen 
every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise, during 
the recess of the legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make 
temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall 
then fill such vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of 
thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall 
not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, 
but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pra 
tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office 
of President of the United States. 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When 
sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the Presi¬ 
dent of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: and no person 
shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than t« 
removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, 
trust or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall never¬ 
theless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, 
according to law. 

Sect. IV. 1. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators 
i,ud Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; 
but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except 
as to the places of choosing Senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting 
shall be pn the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint 
a different- day. 

Sect. V. 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns and 
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute i , 
quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day 
and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in suck 
manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. 

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members 
for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time 
publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; 


VI 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, 
at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent 
of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that 
in which the two houses shall be sitting. 

Sect. VI. 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensa¬ 
tion for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out of the treasury of 
the United States. They shall in all cases except treason, felony and breach 
of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session 
of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and 
for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any 
other place. 

2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was 
elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States „ 
which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been 
increased, during such time; and no person holding any office under the United 
States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. 

Sect. VII. i. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of 
Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as 
on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the 
Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the 
United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it with 
his objections to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter 
the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after 
such reconsideration two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it 
shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall 
likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two thirds of that house, it shall 
become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be deter¬ 
mined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against 
the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill 
shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after 
it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if 
he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, 
in which case it shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate 
and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of 
adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and 
before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved 
by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representa¬ 
tives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

Sect. VIII. The Congress shall have power 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts 
And provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States’; 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES vij 

but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United 
States; 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian tribes; 

4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the 
subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix 
the standard of weights and measures; 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current 
coin of the United States; 

7. To establish post offices and post roads; 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited 
times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings 
and discoveries; 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas 
and offences against the law of nations; 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules 
concerning captures on land and water; 

12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use 
thall be for a longer term than two years; 

13. To provide and maintain a navy; 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval 
forces; 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, 
suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; 

16. To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the militia, and for 
governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United 
States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and 
the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by 
Congress; 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such dis¬ 
trict (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, 
and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of the United 
States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent 
of the legislature of the State, in which the same shall be, for the erection of 
forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings; — and 

18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into 
execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitu¬ 
tion in the government of the United States, or in any department or office 
thereof. 

Sect. IX. 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the 
States now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by the 


viii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


Congress prior to the year 1808; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such 
importation, not exceeding $10 for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless 
when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

4. No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to 
the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 

6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue 
to the ports of one State over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or 
from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of ap¬ 
propriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts 
and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 

8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no person 
holding any office of profit or trust under them, shaM, without the consent of 
the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind 
whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

Sect. X. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; 
grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make 
anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill 
of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or 
grant any title of nobility. 

2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or 
duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for 
executing its inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts, 
laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of 
the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control 
of the Congress. 

3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, 
keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or com¬ 
pact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless 
actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II 

Section I. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the 
United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four 
years, and together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, 
be elected as follows: 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may 
direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Repre¬ 
sentatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress; but no Senator 
or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United 
States, shall be appointed an elector. 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ix 


[The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two 
persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with 
themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the 
number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit 
sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the President 
of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senata 
and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then 
be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors ap¬ 
pointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an 
equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately 
choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, 
then from the five highest on the list the said house shall in like manner choose 
the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by 
States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this 
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, 
and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, 
after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes 
of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or 
more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the 
Vice-President.] 

3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the 
day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same through¬ 
out the United States. 

4. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, 
at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office 
of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not 
have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident 
within the United States. 

5. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death, resigna¬ 
tion, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same 
shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for 
the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and 
Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such 
officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall 
be elected. 

6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensa¬ 
tion, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for 
which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period 
any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following 
oath or affirmation: — “I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully 
execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my 
ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.” 


X, 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


Sect. II. i. The President shall be commander in chief of the army and 
navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called 
into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in 
writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon aDy 
subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power 
to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except 
in cases of impeachment. 

2, He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, 
to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he 
shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall 
appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme 
Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not 
herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law: but the 
Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they 
think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of 
departments. 

3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen 
during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at 
the end of their next session. 

Sect. IH. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information ol 
the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures 
as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, 
convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between 
them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such 
time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public 
ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall 
commission all the officers of the United States. 

Sect. IV. The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the United 
States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and on conviction 
of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III 

Section I. 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in 
one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as Congress may from time to 
time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior 
courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times 9 
receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during 
their continuance in office. 

Sect. II. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, 
arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made 
or which shall be made, under their authority; — to all cases affecting ambassa¬ 
dors, other public ministers and consuls; — to all cases of admiralty jurisdic¬ 
tion;— to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; — to 
controversies between two or more States; — between a State and citizens of 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES » 


another State; — between citizens of different States; — between citizens of 
the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a 
State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls* 
and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have 
original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme 
Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such ex* 
ceotions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 

3- The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; 
and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been 
committed; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at 
such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 

Sect. III. i. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying 
war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfortc 
No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses 
to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but 
no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except 
during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 

Section I. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public 
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress 
may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and 
proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Sect. II. i. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges 
and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who 
shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall on demand of the 
executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be 
removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, 
escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein,, 
be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of 
the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

Sect. III. 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Unions 
but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other 
State; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts 
of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the States concerned as well 
as of the Congress. 

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules 
and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the 
United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to 
prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


xii 

Sect. IV. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union 
a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against in¬ 
vasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the 
legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, 
shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the 
legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for pro¬ 
posing amendments, which, in either case shall be valid to all intents and pur¬ 
poses, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three 
fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the 
one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided 
that no amendments which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight 
hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, shall 
be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption 
of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this 
Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made 
in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the 
authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the 
judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or 
laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 

3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members 
of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of 
the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirma¬ 
tion, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required 
as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the 
establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. 

Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, the 
seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand seven 
hundred and eighty-seven and of the Independence of the United States of 
America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our 
names. 

[Signed by] Go Washington 

Presidt and Deputy from Virginia 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xiii 


Articles in Addition to and Amendment of the Constitution of the 
United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified 
by the Legislatures of the Several States, Pursuant to the 
Fifth Article of the Original Constitution 1 

Article I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of 
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of 
speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and 
to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 

Article II. A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a 
free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. 

Article III. No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house 
without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be 
prescribed by law. 

Article IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 
violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by 
oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and 
the persons or things to be seized. 

Article V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury except 
in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual 
service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the 
same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled 
in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, 
liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property 
be taken for public use without just compensation. 

Article VI. In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right 
to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been 
previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of 
the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have 
compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assist¬ 
ance of counsel for his defence. 

Article VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, 
than according to the rules of the common law. 

Article VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines 
imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

Article IX. The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall 
not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

Article X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Con* 

» The first ten Amendments were adopted in 1791. 


xiv CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


stitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respee* 
tively, or to the people. 

Article XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed 
to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one 
of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of 
any foreign state. [Adopted in 1798.] 

Article XII. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote 
by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be 
an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their 
ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person 
voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons 
voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of 
the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and 
transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to 
the President of the Senate; — the President of the Senate shall, in the pres¬ 
ence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and 
the votes shall then be counted; — the person having the greatest number of 
votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then 
from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of 
those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose im¬ 
mediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes 
shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote, 
a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds 
of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 
And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever 
the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March 
next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the 
death or other constitutional disability of the President. — The person having 
the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if 
such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if 
no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the 
Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist 
of two thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole 
number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible 
to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United 
States. [Adopted in 1804.] 

Article XIII. Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, 
except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con¬ 
victed, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their juris¬ 
diction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate 
legislation. [Adopted in 1865.] 

Article XIV. Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xv 


States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United State* 
and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law 
which shall abridge the privileges or .immunities of citizens of the United States , 
nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due 
process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protec¬ 
tion of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons 
in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any 
election for the choice of Electors for President and Vice-President of the United 
States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a 
State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male 
inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the 
United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or 
other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the propor¬ 
tion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of 
male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or 
Elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military 
under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an 
oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a 
member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any 
State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in 
insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies 
thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such 
disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized 
by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for 
services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But 
neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obliga 
tion incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any 
claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations,, 
and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legisla= 
tion the provisions of this article. [Adopted in 1867.] 

Article XV. Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote 
shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account 
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro 
priate legislation. [Adopted in 1870.] 

Article XVI. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on 
incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the sev¬ 
eral States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. [Adopted in 1913.J 
Article XVII. Section 1. The Senate of the United States shall be com* 


XVI 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


posed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for sil 
years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall 
have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
State Legislatures. 

Section 2. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in 
the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election 
to fill such vacancies: Provided that the Legislature of any State may empower 
the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the 
vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. 

Section 3. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election 
or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution, 
(Adopted in 1913.] 

Article XVIII. Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this 
article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, 
the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from, the United 
States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage pur¬ 
poses is hereby prohibited. 

Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent 
power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been 
ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the 
several States, as provided by the Constitution, within seven years from the 
date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress. [Adopted 
in 1919.] 

Article XIX. Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to 
vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on 
account of sex. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap¬ 
propriate legislation. 





BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 


Adams, John, second President of the United States, bom in Brain* 
tree, Massachusetts, October 30, 1735; died in Quincy, in the same state, 
July 4, 1826. He was graduated from Harvard. Adams was one of 
the ablest leaders of the Revolutionary movement and was a signer of 
the Declaration of Independence and the treaties of peace with Great 
Britain. He was minister to Great Britain during the Confederation, 
and was the first Vice President. He was President from 1797 to 1801. 

Adams, John Quincy, sixth President of the United States, son of 
John Adams the second President, was born in Braintree, Massachusetts, 
July 11, 1767; died in Washington, District of Columbia, February 23, 
1848. He was graduated from Harvard. He was President from 1825 
to 1829. No President enjoyed a wider diplomatic experience; he had 
filled with distinction the positions of Minister to the Netherlands, 
Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain, and had served as one of the com¬ 
missioners for the treaty ending the War of 1812. He had also been 
United States Senator and Secretary of State under Monroe. Nor did 
his public service end with his Presidential term, for shortly afterward 
he was elected to the House of Representatives, and he continued a 
member of that body until his death. Adams was one of the most ac¬ 
complished scholars that have graced American public life. 

Adams, Samuel, patriot, bom in Boston in 1722; died there in 1803. 
He was graduated from Harvard. He was one of the earliest cham¬ 
pions of the people’s rights. Ever on the alert, he was untiring in his 
resistance to Great Britain’s attacks upon the liberties of the colonies, 
and by his writings and speeches quickened the spirit of opposition. 
So great were his efforts in the movement for independence that he is 
often called the “ Father of the Revolution.” In 1794 he became 
governor of Massachusetts. 

Arthur, Chester Alan, twenty-first President of the United States, 
bom in Fairfield, Vermont, October 5, 1830; died in New York, Novem¬ 
ber 18, 1886. He was graduated from Union College. After teaching 
for a short time he began the practice of law in New York city. In 
1862 he became inspector-general and quartermaster-general of New 
York state troops. In 1871 he was appointed collector of the port of 
New York, which position he held until 1878. Elected Vice President 
in 1880, he became President upon the assassination of President 
Garfield, in 1881, and served until 1885. 

xvii 


Xviii BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 


Bryant, William Cullen, poet, bom in Cummington, Massachusetts, 
November 4, 1793; died in New York City, June 12, 1878. He was a 
very precocious child. When only a year and a half old he knew the 
alphabet; at four he was attending school and showing remarkable skill 
in reading and spelling; at eight he was making creditable verses. 
During his long life Bryant wrote much poetry of the highest quality, 
but nothing more sublime than Thanatopsis, which he composed when 
seventeen years old. This great poem on nature the youthful author 
put aside after writing. It was found by his father, some years later, 
in the pigeon-hole of a desk. Bryant lived for thirty years in New 
England, and then removed to New York City, where for the rest 
of his long life he edited newspapers. 

Buchanan, James, fifteenth President of the United States, born 
near Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, April 23, 1791; died in Lancaster, 
Pennsylvania, June 1, 1868. He was graduated from Dickinson Col¬ 
lege. He was a representative in Congress and United States Senator, 
serving in the two houses twenty-two years. He represented the United 
States as Minister to Russia, and to Great Britain, and during Polk’s 
administration was Secretary of State. He was President from 1857 
to 1861. Buchanan was a man of ability, and was thoroughly informed 
as to public affairs. So much of his life was spent in holding high posi¬ 
tions that he was called “ Old Public Functionary.” 

Calhoun, John Caldwell, statesman, bom in Abbeville District, 
South Carolina, March 18, 1782; died in Washington, March 31, 1850. 
He was graduated from Yale. He was a member of Congress and Senator 
from South Carolina, serving in the Senate, in all, sixteen years; he 
was also Secretary of War under Monroe; Vice President and Secretary 
of State under Tyler. Calhoun was one of the ablest of Southern 
leaders. He was the champion of states’ rights, defending the doc¬ 
trine with all the force of his logical mind. Southerners felt for him an 
admiration that was almost worship. This admiration was not un¬ 
worthily placed, for he combined a lofty intellect with an irreproachable 
character. 

Clay, Henry, statesman, bom in Hanover County, Virginia, April 12, 
1777; died in Washington, June 29, 1852. He removed to Kentucky, 
representing the state in each house of Congress. He was repeatedly 
elected Speaker of the House, and served in the Senate thirteen years; 
was one of the commissioners for the treaty of peace closing the War 
of 1812, and was Secretary of State under J. Q. Adams. Coming from 
a border state, Clay occupied a neutral position in the angry dissensions 
between North and South, and his was often the part to pacify the con¬ 
flicting elements with a compromise. This he did with consummate 
skill. No leader ever had a following more strongly attached to him¬ 
self personalty than Clay; his persuasive eloquence held men like a spell. 

Clemens, Samuel Langhome (“Mark Twain”), author, bom in 


BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 


xiK 

Florida, Missouri, November 30, 1835; died in Redding, Connecticut, 
April 21, 1910. In his younger life his career was varied. He passed 
his boyhood in border towns and then, in succession, worked as a pilot 
on a Mississippi River steamboat, served as a private in the Confederate 
army, acted as reporter for newspapers on the Pacific coast, and spent 
six months in the Sandwich (now Hawaiian) Islands. At the age of 
thirty-two he began writing under the nom de plume of “ Mark Twain.” 
His Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn grew out of his youth on the 
border; his Life on the Mississippi came from his experiences as a pilot 
on that river; and his Roughing It found its inspiration in his life on 
the Pacific coast. After making a trip around the world he wrote The 
Innocents Abroad , and later having visited Europe again, he wrote A 
Tramp Abroad. His The Prince and the Pauper is a story of medieval 
England. The writings of Mark Twain are full of wholesome wit and 
humor, and at the same time are literary productions of high order. 

Cleveland, Grover, twenty-second and twenty-fourth President of 
the United States, bom in Caldwell, New Jersey, March 18, 1837; 
died in Princeton, New Jersey, June 24, 1908. He studied law at 
Buffalo, New York, where he was admitted to the bar in 1859. He was 
sheriff of Erie County (in which Buffalo is situated) from 1871 to 1874. 
He was mayor of Buffalo in 1882, and in that year was elected governor 
of New York by the Democrats, receiving nearly two hundred thousand 
more votes than his Republican opponent. He served as President 
from 1885 to 1889; was defeated for reelection, but four years later was 
again elected to the Presidency, serving the second term from 1893 to 
1897. As President he impressed the country with the courageous 
manner in which he followed his convictions. 

Cooper, James Fenimore, author, born in Burlington, New Jersey, 
September 15, 1789; died in Cooperstown, New York, September 14, 
1851. He attended Yale College, but did not graduate. Cooper had 
been reared in a border settlement, where he came in contact with the 
Indian and the frontiersman; soon after leaving college, he became 
first a sailor on a merchant vessel and then a midshipman in the United 
States Navy. His life on the border and on the sea was an excellent 
preparation for his literary labors. Among the best of his novels are 
Indian stories and sea tales. His Indian stories, grouped together and 
known as the Leatherstocking tales, are The Deerslayer, The Last oj 
the Mohicans , The Pathfinder , The Pioneers , and The Prairie. The 
most popular of his sea stories are The Pilot and The Red Rover. The 
Spy , a tale of the Revolutionary War, is also classed with the best. 
Cooper was not only the first great novelist in America, but he was 
also one of the most prolific. He wrote in all thirty-two novels. 

Davis, Jefferson, President of the Confederate States, bom in that 
part of Christian County, Kentucky, which now forms Todd County, 
June 3, 1808; died in New Orleans, December 6, 1889. He was gradu- 


XX 


BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 


ated from West Point, but after serving a few years on the frontier as 
a lieutenant, he resigned from the army and settled in Mississippi, 
where he became a cotton planter. He was elected to Congress from 
Mississippi, but resigned to serve in the Mexican War as colonel of a 
Mississippi regiment. He acted with great gallantry in every battle in 
which he was engaged, and at Buena Vista was severely wounded. He 
was United States Senator from Mississippi; served as Secretary of 
War under Pierce; and once more entered the Senate, where he 
remained until Mississippi seceded. On the death of Calhoun the 
mantle of leadership of the states’ rights party in the South fell 
upon Davis, whose talents early made him conspicuous. He was 
unanimously chosen to serve as President of the Confederate States. 
His “military skill, administrative capacity, and unwearied activity,” 
combined with his personal disinterestedness and patience under 
suffering, made him the fitting leader of a cause which rose and fell in 
the smoke of battle. 

Edison, Thomas Alva, inventor, bom in Milan, Ohio, February n, 
1847. While still very young he started work as a newsboy on a train. 
Because, at the risk of his life, he saved a little child from being run 
over by a locomotive, the father of the child, a telegraph operator, 
taught him telegraphy. He became one of the most expert telegraphers 
in the country. Edison had always been fond of chemistry, and having 
an inventive term of mind, he soon began making experiments in elec¬ 
tricity. The first of his best known inventions is the incandescent 
electric light for use in houses, which he perfected in 1880. Among his 
other well known inventions are the phonograph for reproducing human 
speech, and the kinetoscope for making motion pictures. Edison is an 
untiring worker. He has patented in all more than seven hundred in¬ 
ventions, mainly electrical. In 1886 he built at West Orange, New 
Jersey, for the purpose of conducting experiments, the largest laboratory 
in the world. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, philosopher and poet, bom in Boston, 
Massachusetts, May 25, 1803; died in Concord, Massachusetts, 
April 27, 1882. He was graduated from Harvard and became a 
minister of the Unitarian Church. Resigning his pastorate, he took up 
Lyceum lecturing and continued in this work for nearly forty years. 
Emerson’s lectures, which have been published in book form, always 
have life for their subject and have been of great influence toward pure 
living. His poems also usually treat of serious life. Those on love 
are, To Rhea, Give all to Love, Initial, Daemonic, and Celestial Love , 
and those philosophic, The Sphinx, Brahma, Uriel , Guy, and Fore¬ 
runners. A poem that touched the popular chord is Concord Hymn. 

Fillmore, Millard, thirteenth President of the United States, bom in 
Summer Hill, Cayuga County, New York, February 7, 1800; died in 
Buffalo, in the same state, March 8, 1874. In his youth he was very 


BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 


XXI 


poor. He learned the trade of a fuller, but soon became a lawyer. 
Besides holding state offices he represented New York in Congress for 
a number of years. As Vice President he became President upon the 
death of President Taylor, in 1850, serving until 1853. During his 
Presidential term his political opponents had a majority in Congress, 
and hence his administration, though an able one, was at a disadvan¬ 
tage. Fillmore retained the esteem of all because of his personal 
integrity, his dignified statesmanship, and his courtly demeanor. 

Franklin, Benjamin, statesman and philosopher, bom in Boston, 
January 17, 1706; died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, April 17, 1790. 
His parents were poor, and he was apprenticed at the age of twelve to 
the printer’s trade. When seventeen, he removed to Philadelphia, ar¬ 
riving there almost penniless. He continued in the printing business, 
and through his writings while quite young gained considerable notice. 
His most famous publication was Poor Richard's Almanac. Franklin 
held many colonial positions of tmst. He was untiring in his work for 
America, and enjoyed the distinction of signing the Declaration of 
Independence, the treaty of alliance with France, the treaty of peace 
with Great Britain, and the Constitution of the United States. He 
was also president (or governor) of Pennsylvania. Despite his busy 
life, Franklin found time to devote to science and to the advancement 
of the human race. He made valuable discoveries in electricity. 

Fulton, Robert, inventor, bom near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, iij 
1765; died in New York City, February 24, 1815. Some years of his 
young manhood Fulton spent in painting portraits and landscapes; 
while yet a boy he had shown that his mind possessed a mechanical 
turn. While engaged in painting in England, he made some valuable 
inventions, mainly concerning navigation. He first attempted to pro¬ 
pel a vessel by steam on the Seine River at Paris, but, failing, he re¬ 
turned to America, where with the financial aid of a friend he built the 
Clermont , which made the trip from New York to Albany and return 
by steam power in 1807. In the few years left to him, Fulton built 
many river-steamers and ferry-boats. He also experimented on a 
submarine for destroying vessels with the torpedo, but his efforts were 
not successful. 

Garfield, James Abram, twentieth President of the United States, 
bom in Orange, Ohio, November 19, 1831; died in Elberon, New Jersey, 
September 19, 1881. His youth was spent in poverty. He studied 
while he worked, and saved his earnings, so that he was able to attend 
Williams College, from which institution he was graduated in 1856. 
Serving in the Union army during the War of Secession, he rose to be a 
major-general. From 1863 to 1880 he was a Republican Representative 
in Congress from Ohio. He was a member of the electoral commission 
of 1876. His state had just chosen him to represent her in the United 
States Senate when he was nominated for the Presidency. Shortly 


xxii BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 

after becoming President (1881) he was assassinated by a disappointed 
office seeker. Few Presidents have been better fitted, by reason of 
long public service, for the duties of the office. 

Grant, Ulysses S., eighteenth President of the United States, born in 
Point Pleasant, Ohio, April 27, 1822; died in Mount McGregor, near 
Saratoga, New York, July 23, 1885. He graduated at West Point in 
1843 and served in the Mexican War as a lieutenant, acting with con¬ 
spicuous gallantry in many battles. Soon after the outbreak of the 
War of Secession, Grant was appointed colonel of an Illinois regiment, 
and in less than two months was made a brigadier-general of United 
States volunteers. On account of his masterly conduct of compaigns 
in the West, he received steady promotion, becoming, in 1864, com¬ 
mander of all the armies of the United States. In 1866 he was ap¬ 
pointed (full) general; this was an office of higher rank than had ever 
existed in the army, and had been created by Congress in recognition 
of his services. From 1869 to 1877 he served as President. With his 
aptitude for soldiership, Grant combined many of the truest traits of 
manhood. His magnanimity toward his defeated foes is remembered 
equally with his military achievements. 

Hamilton, Alexander, statesman, bom in the West Indies, Janu¬ 
ary 11, 1757; died in New York, as the result of a duel with Aaron Burr, 
July 12, 1804. He came to America to seek an education, and at six¬ 
teen entered King’s College (now Columbia University). While still a 
student, he wrote such able articles in defense of the colonies that they 
were thought to be the work of a mature statesman. He served in the 
Revolution on Washington’s staff; was a member of the Congress of 
the Confederation and of the convention which adopted the Federal 
Constitution. He was the author of most of the numbers of The 
Federalist , the series of masterly papers which did so much to secure 
the adoption of the Constitution. The success which crowned his ef¬ 
forts, as the first Secretary of the Treasury, to put the disordered 
finances of the government upon a solid basis, has given Hamilton the 
highest place among American financiers. 

Harrison, Benjamin, twenty-third President of the United States, 
grandson of President William Henry Harrison, bom in North Bend, 
Ohio, August 20, 1833; died in Indianapolis, March 13, 1901. He was 
graduated from Miami University and practiced law in Indianapolis. 
He was a gallant soldier of the Union army in the War of Secession, 
becoming brevet brigadier-general. From 1881 to 1887 he was a 
Republican member of the United States Senate from Indiana, and 
from 1889 to 1893 was President. Harrison was an accomplished 
lawyer, and his administration of the Presidency showed him to be a 
statesman of no inconsiderable ability. 

Harrison, William Henry, ninth President of the United States, 
bom in Berkley, Virginia, February 9, 1773; died in Washington* 


BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS xxiii 


April 4, 1841. He attended Hampden-Sidney College. He gained 
distinction as a general in Indian conflicts and in the War of 1812. 
Like Jackson, he served in the civil as well as in the military branch of 
the government. He was a delegate to Congress from the Northwest 
Territory, governor of Indiana Territory, member of Congress and 
Senator from Ohio, and Minister to Colombia. He became President 
in 1841, and died one month after assuming office. Most of his time 
was spent on the frontier, and while he had the simple manners and 
habits usual in such surroundings, he was noted for the great firmness 
of his character. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, author, bom in Salem, Massachusetts, 
July 4, 1804; died in Plymouth, New Hampshire, May 18, 1864. He 
was graduated from Bowdoin College. Except for holding two or three 
minor public offices he devoted his life to literary pursuits. Hawthorne 
wrote but few novels, yet three, The Scarlet Letter, The House of the 
Seven Gables, and The Marble Faun , are of such high merit that 
they make him easily the greatest of American novelists. Indeed, 
Hawthorne is one of the most artistic writers of the nineteenth century. 
Nowhere may be found more charming short stories than those in 
his Twice Told Tales, Grandfather's Chair, Mosses from an Old Manse , 
A Wonder Book, The Snow Image and Other Tales, and Tanglewood 
Tales. Many of his stories were written for children, but they are 
equally pleasing to mature readers. 

Hayes, Rutherford Birchard, nineteenth President of the United 
States, bom in Delaware, Ohio, October 4, 1822; died in Fremont, 
Ohio, January 17, 1893. He was graduated from Kenyon College. He 
served in the Union army in the War of Secession, rising to the rank of 
brevet major-general of volunteers; was a Republican member of 
Congress from Ohio, 1865-1867; was governor of Ohio, 1868-1872, and 
was again governor in 1876 at the time of his nomination for the Presi¬ 
dency. He served as President from 1877 to 1881. His administra¬ 
tion was marked by his earnest efforts to improve the public service 
and by the success with which the public credit was maintained at a 
critical time. 

Henry, Patrick, patriot, bom in Studley, Hanover County, Virginia, 
May 29, 1736; died in Red Hill, Charlotte County, Virginia, June 6, 
1799. He was admitted to the bar in 1760, and soon acquired a large 
practice. He was a member of the Continental Congress of 1774 ; was 
governor of Virginia from 1776 to 1779, and again from 1784 to 1786. 
There was no greater orator of Revolutionary times. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, author, bom in Cambridge, Massachusetts, 
August 29, 1809; died in Boston, Massachusetts, October 7, 1894. 
He was graduated from Harvard; was admitted to the practice of 
medicine and held a professorship in the medical department of Dart¬ 
mouth and then of Harvard. His most famous book is The Autocrat 


xxivr BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 


of the Breakfast Table, in which sparkling wit, keen insight into human 
nature, and wholesome philosophy abound. This book has been de¬ 
scribed as a “ brilliant talk over every topic, fancy, feeling, fact.” 
His other works in this series are The Professor at the Breakfast Table, 
The Poet at the Breakfast Table, and Over the Teacups. Holmes was also 
poet and novelist. Among his poems are The Chambered Nautilus, 
The Last Leaf, Old Ironsides, and The One-hoss Shay. His best known 
novel is Elsie Venner. 

Howe, Elias, inventor, born in Spencer, Massachusetts, July 9, 1819; 
died in Brooklyn, New York, October 3, 1867. His father, who was a 
miller, was very poor. The boy helped his father in the milling business. 
Then he went to Boston, where he became a mechanic. While follow¬ 
ing his trade Howe invented, in 1845, the sewing machine. For eight 
years he had worked upon the machine before completing it, and dur¬ 
ing the time was so poor that he was compelled to accept the assistance 
of a friend in supporting his family. The sewing machine made Howe 
a very rich man. In the War of Secession he volunteered and served 
as a private in a Connecticut regiment. He loaned the government 
funds to pay the regiment. 

Irving, Washington, author, bom in New York City, April 3, 1783; 
died in Irvington, New York, November 28, 1859. On account of 
delicate health he was not given much schooling. He was admitted to 
the bar, but seemed to have had no taste for the law. In 1809 he pub¬ 
lished his first book, Knickerbocker's History of New York, a comic 
history of the early settlement of that state. Ten years passed without 
his doing further literary work. Dining that time he was engaged in 
the hardware business. When the business failed Irving gave himself 
entirely to writing, producing, in 1819, the Sketch-Book which made him 
famous throughout the world. Some of his best known works are 
historical and biographical, such as The Alhambra, The Conquest of 
Granada, The Conquest of Spain, and the biographies of Columbus, 
Cromwell, Mahomet, and Washington. Irving was the first American 
writer whose genius the whole world acknowledged. 

Jackson, Andrew, seventh President of the United States, bom in 
the Waxhaws, a settlement on the border line between North and South 
Carolina, March 15, 1767; died at his home, the Hermitage, near 
Nashville, Tennessee, June 8, 1845. Though a mere lad, he served in 
the American army during the closing years of the Revolution. He 
was reared in poverty, and worked in the saddlery business before he 
was admitted to the bar. When a young man he moved to Tennessee. 
His victory at New Orleans gave him a national reputation. As the 
candidate of the “plain people,” he was elected President, serving 
from 1829 to 1837. Before his election to the Presidency he had some 
experience in the civil service. He represented Tennessee in each 
house of Congress, and was governor of Florida Territory. Jackson’s 


BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 


xxv 


character stands out boldly in American history. Of impulsive nature, 
he acted quickly; of high temper, he made many enemies, to whom 
he was unforgiving, while to his friends he was ever loyal; of strong 
will, he, more than any other President, forced his views upon Congress. 
Through all, his rugged honesty was never questioned. 

Jackson, Thomas Jonathan (“ Stonewall ”), soldier, bom in Clarks¬ 
burg, Virginia (now West Virginia), January 21, 1824; died near the 
battlefield of Chancellorsville, Va., May 10, 1863. He was graduated 
from West Point in 1846, and served as a lieutenant in the war with 
Mexico. In 1851 he became a professor in the Virigina Military 
Institute at Lexington. At the beginning of the War of Secession 
he received a colonel’s commission in the Confederate army and 
was placed in command of Harper’s Ferry. He rose rapidly in 
rank — receiving the grades of brigadier-general, major-general, and 
lieutenant-general. His Valley campaign in May and June, 1862, 
has frequently been likened to Bonaparte’s campaign in Italy. 
“ Stonewall ” Jackson is regarded as Lee’s greatest lieutenant. 

Jefferson, Thomas, third President of the United States, born in 
Albemarle County, Virginia, April 13, 1743; died at his home, Monti- 
cello, in Virginia, July 4, 1826. He attended William and Mary Col¬ 
lege. He served in the Virginia House of Burgesses during the trouble¬ 
some times before the Revolution, and was prominent in opposition to 
Great Britain. A paper by Jefferson, entitled “ A Summary View of 
the Rights of British America,” attracted the attention of the world. 
While a member of the Continental Congress he wrote the Declaration 
of Independence. He was Governor of Virginia, Minister to France, 
Secretary of State, Vice President, and President, serving in the last 
named office from 1801 to 1809. His papers in defense of the colonies 
were unexcelled. He was an advocate of simplicity in government, and 
his long life was devoted to the promotion of education and of political 
and religious freedom. It was with just pride that he wrote as his own 
epitaph, “ Author of the Declaration of Independence and of the Statute 
of Virginia for Religious Freedom, and Father of the University o\ 
Virginia.” By many he is considered the greatest political leader ol 
his day. 

Johnson, Andrew, seventeenth President of the United States, born 
in Raleigh, North Carolina, December, 29, 1808; died near Carter’s 
Station, Tennessee, July 31, 1875. When only ten years old he was 
apprenticed to the tailor’s trade. His fellow-workmen taught him the 
alphabet, and he borrowed books and learned to read. At the age of 
eighteen he removed to Greeneville, Tennessee. He was a Democratic 
member of Congress from 1843 until 1853, when he became governor 
of Tennessee. In 1857 he was elected United States Senator. He 
refused to follow Tennessee in the secession movement, and retained 
his seat in the Senate until 1862, when Lincoln appointed him military 


xxvi BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 


governor of Tennessee. He was elected Vice President by the Re¬ 
publicans, in 1864, in recognition of the services rendered the country 
by the war Democrats. Upon the assassination of Lincoln (1865) he 
became President, serving until 1869. After his presidential term he 
was again elected United States Senator from Tennessee, but died 
soon after taking his seat. The unfortunate difference, that arose be¬ 
tween Congress and President Johnson made his administration very 
unpopular, yet it is now generally conceded that in the main points of 
the controversy Johnson’s position was correct. 

Johnston, Joseph Eggleston, soldier, born near Farmville, Virginia, 
February 3, 1807; died at Washington, D.C., March 21, 1891. He 
was graduated from West Point and saw much active service against 
the Indians. In the Mexican War he was a captain, but was brevetted 
for bravery. When he resigned from the old army to serve the Con¬ 
federacy he had risen to the position of quartermaster-general. He is 
very generally regarded as, next to Lee, the ablest general of the Con¬ 
federate army. During the different wars in which he was engaged he 
was wounded ten times. After the War of Secession he represented 
Virginia in Congress. 

Lanier, Sidney, poet, born in Macon, Georgia, February 3, 1843; died 
in Lynn, North Carolina, September 7, f88i. Soon after his gradua¬ 
tion from Oglethorpe College, he enlisted in the Confederate army. 
Although trained for the law, Lanier gave his attention to poetry and 
music. From early life he was a sufferer from ill health. While bat¬ 
tling continually against the ravages of disease, he wrote poetry, sup¬ 
porting himself by lecturing at Johns Hopkins University and at 
Peabody Institute and by playing the flute, of which he was master, 
at concerts. Lanier’s verse is distinguished for its musical effect. 
The poems that are rated his best are The Song of the Chattahoochie, 
The Marshes of Glynn, The Stirrup-Cup , From this Hundred-Terraced 
Height, Corn, Sunrise, and The Symphony. Lanier wrote a treatise, 
The Science of English Poetry, to show the relation between poetry and 
music. He is also author of a novel, Tiger Lilies, besides books for 
boys. The world was the loser when such a sweet singer died so young. 

Lee, Robert Edward, soldier, son of General Henry Lee (“ Light 
Horse Harry ” of the Revolutionary War), bom in Stratford, West¬ 
moreland County, Virginia, January 19, 1807; died in Lexington, 
Virginia, October 12, 1870. He was graduated from West Point in 
1829. For his notable services in the Mexican War he was three times 
brevetted. From 1852 to 1855 he was superintendent of the United 
States Military Academy at West Point. When the Second Cavalry 
was formed, Lee became its lieutenant-colonel. Three days after 
Virginia seceded, Colonel Lee resigned from the United States army, 
and was at once appointed to command the troops of his native state. 
Later he was made a general in the Confederate army and became its 


BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS xxvii 


commander-in-chief. In the War of Secession his fame rose high. 
Lee is now recognized as one of the world’s great generals, while his 
noble character stamps him as an ideal American. From 1865 until 
his death he was president of'Washington College, now Washington 
and Lee University. The anniversary of his birth is observed through¬ 
out the South. 

Lincoln, Abraham, sixteenth President of the United States, bom in 
a cabin in Hardin (now Larue) County, Kentucky, February 12, 1809; 
died in Washington, April 15, 1865. As a child he moved with his 
father to Indiana and later to Illinois. Reared in extreme poverty, 
the boy had a hard struggle in what was then a wilderness. He went 
to school very little, but taught himself to read and cipher by the fire¬ 
light after working at odd jobs by day. The few books that he could 
get he read over and over. Lincoln’s early attempts at making a liveli¬ 
hood were not successful. He followed one business and then another. 
His neighbors appreciated his genuine worth, however, and elected him, 
while a young man, to the Illinois legislature. During his service in 
the legislature he was admitted to the bar, and his rapid rise in the 
legal profession showed that he had at last found the calling for which 
he was suited. He sat one term in Congress as a Whig. In 1858, as 
Republican candidate for the United States Senate, he canvassed his 
state with his opponent, Stephen A. Douglas, and although defeated, 
attracted the attention of the country by his able speeches. He became 
President in 1861 and was holding the office when assassinated in 1865. 
Though he had had no advantages in youth and came to the Presidency 
with little experience in statecraft, yet he successfully guided the re¬ 
public through one of its most perilous periods. The passing of time 
serves but to make more prominent the greatness of the man. 

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, poet, bom in Portland, Maine, 
February 27, 1807; died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, March 24, 
1882. He was graduated from Bowdoin College. For six years he was 
professor of modern languages at Bowdoin, and for eighteen years he 
held the same chair at Harvard. Among his longer poems are Evange¬ 
line, The Courtship of Miles Standish, Hiawatha , and The Spanish 
Student. Among his shorter poems are A Psalm of Life , The Rainy 
Day, The Village Blacksmith, The Old Clock on the Stairs , The Build¬ 
ing of the Ship, The Wreck of the Hesperus, and Excelsior. Longfellow 
was a poet of the people. He wrote of homely joys and sorrows, of 
the familiar truths of life. His style, simple yet beautiful, reaches the 
hearts of all his readers. He had a strong affection for young people, 
and so many of his poems appeal to them that he is called the Chil¬ 
dren’s Poet.” Not only in America, but in the world at large, Long¬ 
fellow’s poems are the most popular of all American writings. 

Lowell, James Russell, author and diplomat, bom in Cambridge, 
Massachusetts, February 22, 1819; died there August 12, 1891. He 


xxviii BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 


was graduated from Harvard, in which institution he subsequently be¬ 
came a professor. He was also Minister to Spain and to Great Britain. 
Lowell was a poet, essayist, and editor of literary periodicals. The 
three poems that made him famous are The Vision of Sir Launfal, 
The Fable for Critics , and The Biglow Papers. Later poems that 
greatly added to his reputation are The Commemoration Ode, and The 
Cathedral. Among his best known essays are Fireside Travels, Among 
my Books, and My Study Windows. 

McClellan, George Brinton, soldier, bom in Philadelphia, Decem¬ 
ber 3, 1826; died in Orange, New Jersey, October 29, 1885. He was 
graduated from West Point, and served with distinction in the Mexi¬ 
can War as a lieutenant. He was also prominent in the War of 
Secession. McClellan’s skill in organizing a great army was unsur¬ 
passed, and his military plans were excellent, but the War of Secession 
was a war of quick moving armies, and the public generally thought 
him too slow in carrying out his plans. His officers and soldiers, 
however, had great confidence in him and were very much attached to 
him. They called him “Little Mac.” In 1864 McClellan was the 
unsuccessful candidate of the Democrats for the Presidency. In 1877 
he was elected Governor of New Jersey. 

McCormick, Cyrus Hall, inventor, bom in Walnut Grove, Virginia, 
February 15, 1809; died in Chicago, May 13, 1884. Helping on the 
farm, he watched his father try for years to invent a machine to take 
the place of the scythe and sickle for cutting grass and grain. When 
his father gave up the problem he took it up. In 1831 he succeeded in 
making the reaper. McCormick removed to Chicago, where he built 
a large factory. From the immense fortune which he amassed from 
his invention, McCormick made generous gifts to educational in¬ 
stitutions. 

McKinley, William, twenty-fifth President of the United States, 
born in Niles, Ohio, January 29, 1843; died in Buffalo, New York, 
September 14, 1901. He attended Alleghany College, but was pre¬ 
vented from graduating by ill health. He served in the Union army 
in the War of Secession, and rose to the rank of major. From 1879 to 
1891 he was a Republican member of Congress from Ohio. In 1889- 
1891 he was chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means in Con¬ 
gress, and as chief author of the McKinley Tariff bill, his name became 
famous in every part of the country. In 1891 he was elected governor 
of Ohio, and in 1893 was reelected. He became President in 1897 and 
held the office until 1901, when he was assassinated by an anarchist. 
As President he won, by his kindly nature and high sense of justice, 
the esteem of every one, regardless of political party. 

Madison, James, fourth President of the United States, bom in 
King George County, Virginia, March 16, 1751; died at his home, 
Montpelier, in Virginia, June 28, 1836. He was graduated from Prince- 


BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS xxiX 

ton; was a member of the Continental Congress and of the convention 
that framed the Federal Constitution. So much of this instrument 
was his work that he is often called the “ Father of the Constitution.” 
He was also one of the contributors to The Federalist. From the 
First through the Fourth Congress he was the leader of the Republicans 
(Democrats) on the floor of the House, and during Jefferson’s adminis¬ 
tration was Secretary of State. He was President from 1809 to 1817. 

Marshall, John, jurist, bom in Fauquier County, Virginia, Septem¬ 
ber 24, 1755; died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, July 6, 1835. Heat- 
tended William and Mary College. In the Revolutionary War he 
volunteered as a private in the patriot army and rose to be a captain. 
He was a member of Congress from Virginia, and Secretary of State 
in the cabinet of President John Adams. In 1801 President Adams ap¬ 
pointed him Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, which 
position he held until his death, thirty-four years later. He is held in 
grateful remembrance because, serving as Chief Justice while the 
Federal government was in its infancy, he gave the government by 
his decisions strength that was much needed. Marshall was the 
greatest of American jurists, and one of the greatest of the world. 

Meade, George Gordon, soldier, born in Cadiz, Spain, December 31, 
1815; died in Philadelphia, November 6, 1872. He was graduated from 
West Point in 1835, and served in the Mexican War, under Taylor in 
the Monterey campaign, and afterward under Scott. He served on 
the Federal side in the War of Secession. He commanded a brigade 
in McClellan’s Peninsular campaign, and at Malvern Hill was severely 
wounded. In all the later campaigns of the Army of the Potomac, 
Meade took a distinguished part. He led a division at Antietam, 
Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville, and on the retirement of Hooker, 
was raised to the command of the army. Gettysburg won for him a 
name among the greatest of American soldiers. He remained in com¬ 
mand until the surrender of Lee’s army, being the only commander of 
the Army of the Potomac who was not superseded. 

Monroe, James, fifth President of the United States, bom in West¬ 
moreland County, Virginia, April 28, 1758; died in New York, July 4, 
1831. He left William and Mary College to serve in the Revolution¬ 
ary War. He was Governor of Virginia, United States Senator, Sec¬ 
retary of State, and Minister to France and to Great Britain. He was 
one of the negotiators of the Louisiana Purchase. He became Presi¬ 
dent in 1817 and served until 1825. Monroe was distinguished for his 
virtues more than for his talents. His long public service was marked 
by uprightness of character and devotion to duty. 

Morse, Samuel Finley Breese, inventor, bom in Charlestown, Massa¬ 
chusetts, April 27, 1791; died in New York City, April 2, 1872. He was 
graduated from Yale in 1810, and became a portrait painter. While 
at college he had become much interested in electricity, which was then 


XXX 


BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 


a new study. On a ship coming from Europe, Morse heard from a fel¬ 
low passenger that by experiments in Paris the electro-magnet had 
been made to send a current along a hundred feet of wire. Morse could 
see no reason why the current could not be sent along wires for an in¬ 
definite distance and he conceived the idea of using it for transmitting 
messages. For three years he labored, completing his system in 1835. 
With the aid of money appropriated by Congress he built, in 1844, a 
telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. Morse also made 
experiments with the submarine cable and, while they were not suc¬ 
cessful, they showed that it was both possible and practicable to send 
messages under water by electricity. 

Pierce, Franklin, fourteenth President of the United States, bom in 
Hillsborough, New Hampshire, November 23, 1804; died in Concord, 
New Hampshire, October 8, 1869. He was graduated from Bowdoin 
College. He represented his native state in each branch of Congress 
and served in the Mexican War as a brigadier-general. He was Presi¬ 
dent from 1853 to 1857. Pierce was an able lawyer and a fluent speaker. 
He believed in a government of limited powers, conducted with the 
strictest economy, and he consistently upheld this view of government 
throughout his administration. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, author, bom in Boston, Massachusetts, January 
19, 1809; died in Baltimore, Maryland, October 7, 1849. His father 
was of a prominent Southern family and his mother was an English 
woman. Both were actors. His parents died when he was very 
young, and he was adopted by a relative in Richmond, Virginia. Poe 
entered the University of Virginia, but owing to a disagreement with 
his adopted father he left before graduation and enlisted as a private 
in the army. An appointment to West Point was secured for him; 
though he took a high stand in his studies, he was discharged for neg¬ 
lect of military duties. Becoming editor of a literary magazine, he 
gained fame by the publication, in 1833, of his short story, The Manu¬ 
script Found in a Bottle. Poe excelled in the short story. Among his 
other stories that are widely popular are, The Fall of the House of 
Usher , The Murders in the Rue Morgue, The Purloined Letter , and The 
Gold Bug. He was a genius in poetry also. Among the best known of 
his poems are The Raven, The Bells, and Annabel Lee. Poe's life was 
a continual stmggle against poverty and intemperance. His inability 
to overcome them cut short a brilliant career. 

Polk, James Knox, eleventh President of the United States, born in 
Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, November 2, 1795; died in 
Nashville, Tennessee, June 15, 1849. When a boy, he moved with his 
father to Tennessee. He was graduated from the University of North 
Carolina. He was a member of Congress from Tennessee for fourteen 
years, and was twice elected Speaker. Then he served one term 
as governor of Tennessee. He was President from 1845 to 1849. 


BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS xxxi 


Polk was a laborious and methodical worker, applying close personal 
attention to all public matters. These powers served to give him 
executive capacity of the highest order, and enabled him to carry 
through successfully every important measure of his administration. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, twenty-sixth President of the United States, 
bom in New York City, October 27, 1858; died in Oyster Bay, New 
York, January 6, 1919. He was graduated from Harvard University. 
When only twenty-eight years old he was the Republican candidate 
for mayor of New York. He was a member of the United States Civil 
Service Commission, 1889-1895, and president of the Board of Police 
Commissioners for the city of New York, 1895-1897. He was appointed 
Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897. On the outbreak of the waf 
with Spain, he resigned to become lieutenant-colonel of the First Regi¬ 
ment of Volunteer Cavalry, more commonly known as the “ Rough 
Riders.” Returning from the war with a well-earned distinction for 
gallantry, he was, in 1898, elected to the governorship of New York, 
and was holding this office when he was nominated for the Vice Presi¬ 
dency. In 1901 he became President, filling out the unexpired term of 
President McKinley. Elected for a full term, he served until 1909. 
Roosevelt was also an author of great ability. Among his books are 
The Winning of the West and The Naval War of 1812. His progressive 
policies while President, especially his efforts to control the trusts, 
made him exceedingly popular with the people. Soon after the World 
War began he became outspoken in his advocacy of America’s taking 
an active part in the conflict. The vigorous manner in which Roosevelt 
urged his views on all public matters excited the admiration not only 
of his friends but his political opponents as well. Few Americans have 
made a greater impress upon the people. No President has been more 
versatile. He was ranchman, hunter, explorer, naturalist, soldier, 
scholar, and statesman. 

Sherman, William Tecumseh, soldier, bom in Lancaster, Ohio, 
February 8, 1820; died in New York, February 14, 1891. He was 
graduated from West Point in 1840, and served in the war against 
the Seminole Indians. In the War of Secession Sherman’s services to 
the Union were second only to those of Grant, whom he succeeded in 
command of the armies in the West. When General Grant became 
President, Sherman was raised to the position of commander-in-chief 
of the army. 

Simms, William Gilmore, author, bom in Charleston, South Caro¬ 
lina, April 17, 1806; died there June 11, 1870. His father, who was 
poor, could give him very limited schooling. Ambitious to overcome 
this handicap, Simms improved his education by diligent reading. 
Adopting a literary career, he continued through life to labor industri¬ 
ously, with the result that he was a most prolific writer. The South of 
Colonial and Revolutionary days furnished the field for most of his 


xxxii BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 

work. Among his most successful novels may be mentioned The 
Yemassee, The Scout , The Partisan, The Wigwam and the Cabin, Mel - 
lichampe, and Catherine Walton. Simms was also a poet and a historian. 

Stephens, Alexander Hamilton, statesman, bom near Crawfordville, 
Georgia, February n, 1812; died in Atlanta, March 4, 1883.' He was 
graduated from the University of Georgia. Prior to the War of 
Secession he served in Congress as a Representative from Georgia for 
sixteen consecutive years. Then he became Vice President of the 
Confederate States. Directly after the war he was elected United 
States Senator, but was not seated; later he was elected to Congress, 
serving nine years. At the time of his death he was governor of Georgia. 
Stephens had a very weak body but a giant intellect. 

Taft, William Howard, twenty-seventh President of the United States, 
bom in Cincinnati, September 15,. 1857. He was graduated from 
Yale and practiced law in Cincinnati. He has held many judicial 
positions, among them judge of the superior court of Ohio and judge 
of the circuit court of the United States. President Roosevelt ap¬ 
pointed him first civil governor of the Philippine Islands, a position 
which he held for three years. From 1904 to 1908 he was Secretary of 
War in the cabinet of President Roosevelt. He served as President 
jiirom 1909 to 1913. 

Taylor, Zachary, twelfth President of the United States, born in 
Orange County, Virginia, September 24, 1784; died in Washington, 
July 9, 1850. When a young man he received a commission as first 
lieutenant of the army. He served in the War of 1812, the Indian wars, 
and the Mexican War, and .rose to the rank of major general. His 
brilliant successes in the Mexican War gained him the Presidency. He 
had served only one year of his term when he died. Having spent his 
life in the army, Taylor had never held a civil office before he became 
President. His opponents charged that he had never voted, and that 
his unfamiliarity with public affairs made him an unsuitable person for 
chief magistrate. On assuming the office, however, he showed such 
remarkable knowledge of the duties required of him that had he been 
spared to serve his term he would doubtless have proved to be one of 
our best Presidents. 

Tyler, John, tenth President of the United States, born in Greenway, 
Virginia, March 29, 1790; died in Richmond, Virginia, January 18, 
1862. He was graduated from William and Mary College. He was 
member of Congress, governor of Virginia, and United States Senator. 
As Vice President he became President in 1841, upon the death of 
President William Henry Harrison, and served until 1845. Tyler held 
the Presidency under trying circumstances. He was a man of con¬ 
siderable talent. He presided over the famous Peace Conference of 
1861, and served as a Confederate Congressman. 

Van Buren, Martin, eighth President of the United States, born 


BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 


in Kinderhook, New York, December 5, 1782; died there July 24, 1862. 
He served as United States Senator, governor of New York, Secretary 
of State under Jackson, Minister to Great Britain, and Vice President 
and President, holding the last named office from 1837 to 1841. In 
1848 he was the unsuccessful candidate of the Free-soil (Antislavery) 
party for President. Van Buren was not a great statesman, but in 
the management of men for political purposes he has had few equals. 

Washington, George, first President of the United States, born in 
Westmoreland County, Virginia, February 22, 1732; died at his home, 
Mount Vernon, in Virginia, December 14, 1799. At the age of sixteen 
he left school to become a surveyor. When not much more than a boy 
he showed his aptitude for military affairs. His conduct in the French 
and Indian War gave him a reputation for soldiery that caused him to 
be selected as the commander-in-chief of the Continental army. How 
during the weary years of the Revolutionary War he struggled against 
almost overwhelming obstacles and how he finally brought victory to 
the patriot cause have already been told in these pages. With one 
voice a grateful people made him their first President. He served from 
1789 to 1797. Washington was a man of strong sense and sound judg¬ 
ment, of stainless character, and unselfish patriotism. Firmness of 
purpose and devotion to duty guided him through his eventful life. 
Reverses did not make him despair, nor did successes make him over¬ 
confident. During the darkest hours of war, when slander and intrigue 
were busy against him, he remained steadfast. The successful Revolu¬ 
tion exalted him above all others of his countrymen, and he might have 
grasped power for himself, but he was still the firm, devoted patriot. 
His character is not surpassed by that of any hero in history. (For 
portrait see frontispiece.) 

Webster, Daniel, statesman, bom in Salisbury (now Franklin), New 
Hampshire, January 18, 1782; died in Marshfield, Massachusetts, 
October 24, 1852. He was graduated from Dartmouth College. He 
served as a member of Congress from New Hampshire. Afterward he 
removed to Boston and became a member of Congress and then a 
Senator from Massachusetts. He served in the Senate, in all, nineteen 
years. He was Secretary of State under Harrison and Tyler, and 
again under Fillmore. His greatest fame lies in his forceful presenta¬ 
tion of the principle that the Union is supreme; that the Constitution 
rests upon its own strength, and not upon the will of the states. Web¬ 
ster was a master of oratory, and many of his orations are classic. 

Whitney, Eli, inventor, bom in Westboro, Massachusetts, Decem¬ 
ber 8, 1765; died in New Haven, Connecticut, January 8, 1825. His 
parents were very poor. By selling nails made with his hands and by 
teaching school, he gained enough money to pay his way through Yale, 
from which college he was graduated in 1792. Immediately afterwards 
he went to Georgia to engage in teaching. While living in that state 


xxxiv BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT AMERICANS 


he invented the cotton gin, a machine for separating the fiber of cotton 
from the seed. Much of the money he received from his invention 
Whitney spent in efforts to prevent others from unlawfully making 
and selling his machine which he had patented. Removing to Con¬ 
necticut, Whitney made a fortune in the manufacture of firearms. 

Whittier, John Greenleaf, poet, bom in Haverhill, Massachusetts, 
December 17, 1807; died in Hampton Falls, New Hampshire, September 
7, 1892. Whittier was a Quaker and the simple faith of the sect flavors 
his writings. In early manhood he devoted most of his literary labors 
to attacks upon slavery but his fame rests mainly on poems having as 
a background the rural life of New England. Notable among them are 
Snow-Bound, Maud Muller, Telling the Bees, The Barefoot Boy, and 
In School Days. Among his excellent historical ballads are The 
Witch's Daughter, Skipper Ireson's Ride, and How the Women went 
from Dover. 

Wilson, Woodrow, twenty-eighth President of the United States, 
bom in Staunton, Virginia, December 28, 1856; died in Washington, 
February 3, 1924. He attended Davidson College and then, entering 
Princeton University, was graduated from the latter institution. He 
was graduated in law from the University of Virginia, and he took a 
postgraduate course in history and political science at Johns Hopkins 
University. He held professorships in history and kindred subjects 
at Bryn Mawr College, Wesleyan University, and Princeton University. 
Of the last named institution he became president. While holding 
educational positions Wilson also engaged in literary work. His writ¬ 
ings are mainly on governmental and historical subjects. Prominent 
among his books are Congressional Government, The State, Division and 
Reunion, and A History of the American People. Wilson left the 
presidency of Princeton University to become governor of New Jersey, 
and while serving in the governorship he was elected (1912) to the 
Presidency of the United States, assuming the duties of the latter office 
in 1913. He was reelected in 1916. No man more scholarly than Wil¬ 
son has ever been in American public life. In politics he is a reformer 
and his record as Governor of New Jersey and President of the United 
States shows him a successful one. It was his zeal for the cause of the 
masses that made him insist, at the close of the World War, on a peace 
based upon their interests. His sincerity and his high intellectual at¬ 
tainments, together with the fact that the United States wished to 
gain nothing from the war, gave him a commanding position in the 
peace conference at Paris in 1919. The oppressed of all nations looked 
to Wilson to safeguard their rights. / " 


REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS 


TABLE OF PUBLISHERS 


Allyn and Bacon, New York 
American Book Co., New York 
Appleton and Co., D., New York 
Barnes and Co., A. S., New York 
Barrie and Sons, Geo., Philadelphia 
Bell Book Co., Richmond, Va. 

Century Co., The, New York 
Crowell and Co., T. Y., New York 
Dodd, Mead and Co., New York 
Doubleday. Page and Co., Garden City, 
N. Y. 

Dutton and Co., E. P., New York 
Estes and Co., Dana, Boston 
Flanagan and Co., A., Chicago 
Ginn and Co., New York 
Grossett and Dunlap, New York 
Hale Book Co., Oak Park, Ill. 

Harper and Bros., New York 
Heath and Co., D. C., New York 
Holt and Co., Henry, New York 
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston 
Hurst and Co., New York 
Jacobs and Co., G. W., Philadelphia 


Johnson Publishing Co., B. F., Richmond? 

Va. 

Lippincott Co., J. B., Philadelphia 
Little, Brown and Co., Boston 
Longmans, Green and Co., New York 
Lothrop, Lee and Shepard. Boston 
Macmillan Co., The, New York 
McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia 
Moffat, Yard and Co., New York 
Newson and Co., New York 
Page Co., The, Boston 
Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J 9 
Putnam’s Sons, G. P., New York 
Rand, McNally and Co., Chicago 
Revell Co., Fleming H., New York 
Scott, Forsman and Co., Chicago 
Scribner’s Sons, Charles, New York 
Silver, Burdett and Co., New York 
Southern Publishing Co., Dallas, Tex. 
Stewart and Kidd Co., Cincinnati 
Stokes Co., Frederick A., New York 
University of Chicago Press, Chicago 
Wilde Co., W. A., Boston 
Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn- 


CHAPTER I 
For Teachers 

1. Cheyney, European Backgrounds. American Nation, Vol. i, Harper and Br©= 

thers, chapters i-iii. 

2. Fiske, Discovery of America. Houghton Mifflin Co. 


For Pupils 

1. Southworth, Builders of Our Country, Book I. D. Appleton and Co. 

2. Nida, Dawn of American History. The Macmillan Co. (Chapter xxii, DiflL 

culties of Early Navigation.) 

3. McMurry, Pioneers on Land and Sea. The Macmillan Co. 

4. Barstow (editor), Explorers and Settlers. The Century Co. 

5. Jacobs, Story of Geographical Discovery. D. Appleton and Co. (Prince Henry 8 

Marco Polo.) 

6. Eastman, Indian Boyhood. Doubleday, Page and Co. 

7. Starr, American Indians. D. C. Heath and Co.' 


CHAPTER II 
For Teachers 

1. Griffis, Romance of Discovery. W. A. Wilde Co. 

2. Hakluyt’s Voyages, Vol. I. (Detailed account of life in time of Elizabeth.) 

Vol. VI. (Raleigh’s Attempts.) Everyman’s Library. E. P. Dutton and! 

Co. 


XXXV 


XXXvi REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS 


For Pupils 

t. McMurry, Pioneers of Rocky Mountains and West (Coronado) and Pioneers of 
Land and Sea. The Macmillan Co. 

2. r Southworth, Builders of Our Country, Book I. D. Appleton and Co. 

3. Barstow (editor), Explorers and Settlers. The Century Co. 

4. Johnson, W. H., The World’s Discoveries. Little, Brown and Co. 

5. Stevenson, Children’s Classics in Dramatic Form. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

(Hudson.) 

CHAPTER III 
For Teachers 

1. Cooke, John E., Virginia. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

2. Thwaites, The Colonies. Longmans, Green and Co. 

3. Brookes, Stories of the Old Bay State. American Book Co. 

For Pupils 

1. Faris, Real Stories from Our History. Ginn and Co. (Semi-Source Material.) 

2. Hart and Hazard, Colonial Children. The Macmillan Co. (Source Reader.) 

3. Magill, M. T., Stories from Virginia History. New Edition by W. S. Currell. 

Bell Book Co. 

4. Barstow (editor), Explorers and Settlers. The Century Co. 

5. Stevenson, Dramatized Scenes from American History. Houghton Mi fflin Co. 

(Settlement of Jamestown. Puritans of Scrooby, Pilgrims and their Journey.) 

CHAPTER IV 
For Teachers 

x. Thwaites, France in America. American Nation, Vol. VII, Harper and Bros. 

2. Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World. Little, Brown and Co. 

For Pupils 

1. McMurry, Pioneers in Mississippi Valley. The Macmillan Co. 

2. Barstow (editor), Explorers and Settlers. The Century Co. 

3. Gordy, American Leaders and Heroes. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

4. Tappan, American Hero Stories. Houghton Mifflin Co. (Stuyvesant.) 

5. Coffin, Old Times in America. Harper and Bros. (Affairs in Manhattan.) 

CHAPTER V 
For Teachers 

1. Earle, Child Life in Colonial Days. The Macmillan Co. 

2. Fisher, Life in Colonial Times (2 vols.). J. B. Lippincott Co. 

3. Lodge, Short History of the English Colonies in America. Harper and Bros. 

For Pupils 

1. Fans, Real Stories from Our History. Ginn and Co. 

2. Stone and Fickett, Every Day Life in the Colonies. D. C. Heath and Co. 

3. Tiffany, Pilgrims and Puritans. Ginn and Co. 

4. Tappan, Letters from Colonial Children. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

5. Gordy, Life in Colonial Days. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

6 . Usher, Story of the Pilgrims for Children. The Macmillan Co. 


REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS XXXvil 


CHAPTER VI 
For Teachers 

1. Smith, The Colonies. Silver, Burdett and Co. 

2. Thwaites, The Colonies. Longmans, Green and Co. 

For Pupils 

1. Guerber, Story of the Thirteen Colonies. American Book Co. 

2. Stimpson, Childs' Book of Biography. Little, Brown and Co. 

3. Tappan, England's Story. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

4. Hart and Hazard, Colonial Children. The Macmillan Co. 

5. Southworth, Builders of Our Country. Book I. D. Appleton & Co. 

CHAPTER VII 
For Teachers 

1. Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe. Little, Brown and Co. 

2. Thwaites, France in America. American Nation, Vol. VH Harper and Bros. 

For Pupils 

1. McMurry, Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley. The Macmillan Co. 

2. Catherwood, Heroes of the Middle West. Ginn and Co. 

2. Southwortb, Builders of Our Country , Book I. D. Appleton and Co. 

4. Thwaites, Father Marquette. D. Appleton and Co. 

5. Gordy, American Leaders and Heroes. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

6. Parkman (edited by Pelham), Struggle for a Continent. Little, Brown and Co. 

(Wolfe.) 

CHAPTER VIH 
For Teachers 

1. Roosevelt (edited by Hitchcock), Episodes from The Winning of the West. G 

P. Putnams’ Sons. 

2. Pryor, The Mother of Washington and her Times. The Macmillan Co. 

3 Earle, Home Life in Colonial Days, and Stage Coach and Tavern Days. The 
Macmillan Co. 

For Pupils 

1. Mowry, American Pioneers. Silver, Burdett and Co. 

2. Roosevelt and Lodge, Hero Tales from American History. The Century Co. 

3 Eggleston, G. C., Life in the Eighteenth Century. A. S. Barnes and Co. 

4. Bruce and Others, Social Life of the South. Southern Publishing Co. 

5. Barstow (editor), Westward Movement. The Century Co. 

6 Stevenson, Children's Classics in Dramatic Form. Houghton Mifflin Co. 
(Capture of Daniel Boone by Indians.) 

CHAPTER IX 
For Teachers 

1. Coman, Industrial History of United States. The Macmillan Co. 

2. Howard, Preliminaries of the Revolution. American Nation, Vol. VIII, Harper 

and Bros. 

3. Andrew, Colonial Self-Government. Harper and Bros. 

4. Morgan, The True Patrick Henry. J. B. Lippincott Co. 


xxxviii REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS 


For Pupils 

x. Hart and Hill, Camps and Firesides of the Revolution. The Macmillan Co. 

2. Baldwin, Four Great Americans. American Book Co. 

3. Jenks, When America Won Liberty. T. Y. Crowell and Co. 

4. Cooke, Stories of the Old Dominion. American Book Co. 

CHAPTER X 
For Teachers 

1. Lodge, George Washington. American Statesmen Series. Houghton Mifflin 

Co. 

2. Ford, The True George Washington. J. B. Lippincott Co. 

3. Fisher, The War for American Independence. J. B. Lippincott Co. (Tory View¬ 

point.) 

4. Van Tyne, American Revolution. American Nation, Vol. XI. Harper and 

Bros. 

5. Schauffler, Washington’s Birthday. Moffat, Yard and Co. (Contains much in¬ 

teresting material.) 

For Pupils 

1. Gordy, American Leaders’ and Heroes. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

2. Southworth, Builders of Our Country, Book II. D. Appleton & Co. 

3. Jenks, When America Won Liberty. T. Y. Crowell and Co. 

4. Stimpson, Child’s Book of Biography. Little, Brown and Co. 

5. Brooks, The True Story of George Washington. Lothrop, Lee and Shepard. 

6. Stevenson, Dramatized Scenes from American History. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

(First Continental Congress.) 

CHAPTER XI 
For Teachers 

x. Van Tyne, American Revolution. American Nation, Vol. IX. Harper and 
Bros. 

2. Lodge, George Washington. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

For Pupils 

1. Deming and Bemis, Stories of Patriotism. Houghton Mifflin Co. (Bunker Hill, 

Declaration of Independence.) 

2. Gordy, American Leaders and Heroes. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

3. Southworth, Builders of Our Counfry. Book II. D. Appleton and Co. 

4. Stevenson, Dramatized Scenes from American History. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

(Declaration of Independence.) 

CHAPTER XII 
For Teachers 

1. Lodge, Story of the Revolution. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

For Pupils 

1. Roosevelt and Lodge, Hero Tales from American History. Century Co. 

(Campaign in New Jersey.) 

2. Barstow (editor), Westward Movement. The Century Co. 

3. Deming and Bemis, Stories of Patriotism. Houghton Mifflin Co. (Valley 

Forge.) 


REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS xxxix 


4. Southworth, Builders of Our Country, Book H. D. Appleton and Co. (Bur- 

goyne’s Campaign.) 

5. Coffin, Boys of '76. Harper and Brothers. 

CHAPTER XIII 
For Teachers 

1. Roosevelt (edited by Hitchcock), Episodes from Winning of the West. G. P. 
Putnam’s Sons. 

For Pupils 

1. Stimpson, Child's Book of Biography. Little, Brown and Co. 

2. Cooke, Stories of the Old Dominion. American Book Co. (Cornwallis and 

Lafayette.) 

3. Roosevelt and Lodge, Hero Tales from American History. The Century Co. 

(King’s Mountain.) 

4. Southworth, Builders of Our Country, Book H. D. Appleton and Co. (York- 

town, J. P. Jones, Sumter and Marion.) 

5. Tappan, American Hero Stories. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

6 . Stevenson, Dramatized Scenes from American History. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

(The Man who Bore the Burden. — Washington.) 

7. Seawell, Paul Jones. D. Appleton and Co. 

CHAPTER XIV 
For Teachers 

1. Fiske, The Critical Period of American History. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

2. McLaughlin, Confederation and the Constitution. American Nation, Vol. X. 

Harper and Bros. 

3. Sparks, Expansion of the American People. Scott, Forsman and Co. (North' 

west Territory.) 

For Pupils 

x. Guerber, Story of the Great Republic. American Book Co. 

2. Jenks, When America Became a Nation. T. Y. Crowell and Co. 

3. Baldwin, Conquest of the Old Northwest. American Book Co., pp. 179-182. 

4. Sparks, Men Who Made the Nation. The Macmillan Co. (Alexander Hamilton* 

Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin.) 

5. Thompson’s Primary History of the United States, D. C. Heath and Co. (Con= 

tains biographies of many of the heroes of the United States.) 

CHAPTERS XV AND XVI 
For Teachers 

1. Turner, Rise of the New West. Harper and Bros. American Nation, Vol. XIV. 

2. Wilson, Woodrow, Mere Literature. Houghton Mifflin Co. (Course of Ameri¬ 

can History.) 

3. Crothers, The Pardoner's Wallet. Houghton Mifflin Co. (The Land of th« 

Large and Charitable Air.) 

For Pupils 

1. Eggleston, G. C., Life in the Eighteenth Century. A. S. Barnes and Co. 

*. Bruce and Others, Social Life of the South. Southern Publishing Co. 
j. Hart and Hill, How Our Grandfathers Lived. The Macmillan Co. (Source 
Reader.) 


\ 


xl REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS 


4. Smith, J. R., Story of Iron and Steel. D. Appleton and Co., pp. 28-41. 

5. Lessons in Community and National Life, Department of Interior, Bureau of 

Education, B 2, C 2. (Occupations of Colonial Farm Life.) 

6. McClellan, Historic Dress in America , Vol. I, 1608-1800. G. W. Jacobs and Co. 

(Fine Pictures of Costumes.) 

CHAPTER XVII 
For Teachers 

1. Fiske, Critical Period of American History. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

2 . McLaughlin, Confederation and the Constitution. American Nation, Vol. X. 

Harper and Bros. 

3. Roosevelt (edited by Hitchcock), Episodes from Winning of the West. (Indian 

Troubles in Northwest — St. Clair and Wayne.) G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 

For Pupils 

x. South worth, Builders of Our Country, Book II. D. Appleton and Co. 

i. Thompson, Primary History. D. C. Heath and Co. 

3. Hart, Source Book No. 71. The Macmillan Co. (A Democratic View of Wash¬ 
ington.) 

CHAPTER XVm 
For Teachers 

1. Webster, Modern European History. D. C. Heath and Co. (French Revolution.) 
*. Morse, Thomas Jefferson. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

For Pupils 

1. McMurry, Pioneers of Rocky Mountains and West. The Macmillan Co. (Lewii 

and Clarke.) 

2. Faris, Real Stories from Our History. Ginn and Co. 

3. Roosevelt and Lodge, Hero Tales from American History. The Century Co. 

4. Deming and Bemis, Stories of Patriotism. Houghton Mifflin Co. ( Man Without 

a Country dramatized.) 

5. South worth, Builders of Our Country. Book n. D. Appleton and Co. 

6. Hitchcock, Louisiana Purcha;e and Exploration. Ginn and Co. 

CHAPTER XIX 
For Teachers 

1. Hart, Source Book of American History. The Macmillan Co. (Capture of the 

Capitol.) 

2 . Webster, Modern European History. D. C. Heath and Co (Europe and 

Napoleon.) 

3. Latane, History of the United States. Allyn and Bacon, pp. 224-250. (Wa* 

of 1812.) 

For Pupils 

1. Guerber, Story of the Great Republic. American Book Co. 

t. Guerber, Story of Modern France. American Book Co. (French Revolution.) 

3. Tappan, England’s Story. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

4. Roosevelt and Lodge, Hero Tales from American History. The Century Co. 

(Battle of New Orleans.) 

5. Hart and Chapman, How our Grandfathers Lived. The Macmillan Co. (Source 

Reader.) 

6 . Seawell, M., Twelve Naval Heroes. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 


REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS xli 


CHAPTER XX 
For Teachers 

x Sparks, Expansion of the American People. Scott, Foresman and Co. (National 
Road, Erie Canal.) 

2. Turner, Rise of the New West. American Nation, Vol. XIV, Harper and 

Bros. 

3. Cheyney, Industrial History of England. The Macmillan Co. (Industrial 

Revolution.) 

For Pupils 

1. Brooke, E. C., Story of Cotton. Rand, McNally and Co. 

2. McMurry, Pioneers in the Mississippi Valley. The Macmillan Co. (Lincoln’s 

Early Life in Kentucky and Illinois. Settlements along the Ohio River.) 

3. Faris, Real Stories from Our History. Ginn and Co. (English Immigrant’s 

Journey, Western Pioneer Life.) 

4. Morris, Heroes of Progress. J. B. Lippincott Co. (Clinton, Fulton, Whitney.) 

5. Lessons in Community Life, Department of Interior. Al. 8. B 3, C 10, 11, 

12, 29. 

CHAPTER XXI 
For Teachers 

1. McMaster, History of the People of the United States, Vol. IV. D. Appleton 

and Co., pp. 381-429. (Development of Canals and Roads.) 

2. Simonds, Student's History of American Literature. Houghton Mi fflin Co. 

(American Literature.) 

For Pupils 

1. Hart and Chapman, How Our Grandfathers Lived. The Macmillan Co. 

2. Howells, Recollections of Life in Ohio. Stewart and Kidd Co. 

3. Drake, Pioneer Life in Kentucky. Stewart and Kidd Co. 

4. Stimpson, Child's Book of American Biography. Little, Brown and Co. 

5. Parkman, Heroines of Service. The Century Co. 

6. Faris, Real Stories from Our History. Ginn and Co. (Early Steamboat Travel, 

stage and mail. Note especially chapter xviii, Glimpses from Western Pioneer 
Life.) 

7. McClellan, E., Historic Dress in America , Vol. II. (After 1800.) G. W. Jacobs 

and Co. 

CHAPTER XXII 
For Teachers 

1. Latane, From Isolation to Leadership. Doubleday, Page and Co. (Chapters i, 

ii, Monroe Doctrine.) 

2. Hart, Monroe Doctrine: An Interpretation. Little, Brown and Co. 

3. Hazen, Europe Since 1815. Henry Holt and Co. (Quadruple Alliance.) 

For Pupils 

1. Guerber, Story of the Great Republic. American Book Co. 

2. Morris, Heroes of Progress. J. B. Lippincott Co. (Calhoun, Clay.) 

3. Southworth, Builders of Our Country, Book II. D. Appleton and Co. (Clay 

and Missouri Compromise.) 


Xlli REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS 


CHAPTER XXIII 

For Teachers 

1. Brady, The True Andrew Jackson, J. B. Lippincott Co. (Chapter xv, Nulli¬ 

fication.) 

2. Sparks, Expansion of the American People. Scott, Foreman and Co., pp. 402- 

411. (Abolitionists.) 

3. Latane, History of the United States. Allyn and Bacon. 

For Pupils 

1. Brown, Andrew Jackson. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

2. Southworth, Builders of Our Country, Book II. D. Appleton and Co. (Andrew 

Jackson.) 

3. Hall, Half Hours in Southern History. B. F. Johnson Publishing Co., pp. 162-181. 

(Slavery.) 

4. Thompson, Primary History. D. C. Heath and Co. (Andrew Jackson.) 

CHAPTER XXIV 

For Teachers 

t. Sparks, The Expansion of the American People. Scott, Foreman and Co. (Chap¬ 
ter xxv, Oregon, chapter xxvi, Texas. Brief.) 

2 Garrison, Westward Extension, American Nation, Vol. 17. Harper and Brothers. 

For Pupils 

1. Mowry, American Pioneers. Silver, Burdett and Co. (Houston, Crockett.) 

2. Gordy, Stories of Later American History. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

3. Roosevelt and Lodge, Hero Tales of American History. The Century Co. 

4. Otis, Philip of Texas. American Book Co. 

5. McMurry, Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the West. The Macmillan Co. 

(Fremont, Parkman among Sioux Indians, Coronado.) 

6. Sprague, Davy Crockett. The Macmillan Co. 

7. Faris, Real Stories from our History. Ginn and Co. (A Day in the Republic of 

Texas.) 

CHAPTER XXV 
For Teachers 

1. Sparks, Expansion of the American People. Scott, Foresman and Co. (Chapter 
xxv, Gold in California; Chapter xxx, Railroads, Steamboats.) 

*. Garrison, Westward Extension. American Nation, Volume 17. Harper and 
Brothers. 

For Pupils 

t. Paxson, The Last American Frontier. The Macmillan Co. (Mormons, Cali¬ 
fornia — and the Forty-Niners.) 

t. Morris, Heroes of Progress in America. J. B. Lippincott Co. (Morse.) 

3. Mowry, American Pioneers. Silver, Burdett and Co. (Sutter and Burnett, 

First Governor of California.) 

4. Faris, Real Stories from our History. Ginn and Co. 


REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS xliii 


CHAPTER XXVI 
For Teachers 

1. McMaster, History of the People of the United States, Vol. VII. D. Appleton 

and Co. (Chapter lxxiii, The East in the Forties.) 

2. Dickens, Charles, American Notes. (Numerous editions.) 

\ 

For Pupils 

1. Morris, Heroes of Progress in America. J. B. Lippincott Co. (Brief but very 

interesting biographies of Fulton, Howe, Goodyear, Frances Willard, Susan 
B. Anthony, Discoverers of anasthesia, Horace Mann, Dorothea Dix.) 

2. Mowry, American Pioneers. Silver, Burdett and Co. (Education for women, 

pp. 279-292, for blind and deaf, pp. 292-306, betterment of, pp. 266-279.) 
(Prohibition, John B. Gough, pp. 347 - 357 -) 

3. Mowry, American Inventions and Inventors. Silver, Burdett and Co. 

4. Perry, Four American Inventors. American Book Co. (Fulton, Morse.) 

5. Brooks, E. C., Story of Corn. Rand, McNally and Co. 

6. Sanford, Story of Agriculture. D. C. Heath and Co. 

CHAPTER XXVH 
For Teachers 

1. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850, Vol. 1. The 

Macmillan Co. 

2. Chadwick, Causes of the Civil War. American Nation, Vol. 19. Harper and 

Brothers. 

3. Wilson, Division and Reunion. Longmans, Green and Co. 

For Pupils 

1. Guerber, Story of the Great Republic. American Book Co. 

2. Hart and Stevens, Romance of the Civil War. The Macmillan Co. (Source 

Reader.) 

3. Hitchcock, Louisiana Purchase and Exploration. Ginn and Co. 

CHAPTER XXVHI 
For Teachers 

1. Wilson, Division and Reunion. Longmans, Green and Co. 

2. Curry, The Southern Slates of the American Union. B. F. Johnson Publishing 

Co. 

3. Hapgood, Abraham Lincoln. The Macmillan Co. 

4. Dodd, Jefferson Davis. G. W. Jacobs and Co. 

For Pupils 

x. Sparhawk, Life of Lincoln for Boys. T. Y. Crowell & Co. 

2. Nicolay, Boys’ Life of Abraham Lincoln. The Centuiy Co. 

3. Mabie, Heroes Every Child Should Know. Grossett and Dunlap. (Lincoln, Lee.) 

4. Hall, Half Hours in Southern History. B. F. Johnson Publishing Co., pp. 181- 

196. (Secession.) 

5. Thompson, Primary History of the United States. D. C. Heath and Co. (Lincoln, 

Davis, Lee.) 


xliv REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS 

CHAPTER XXIX 
For Teachers 

1. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850, Vol. ID, 

The Macmillan Co. 

2. Wilson, Division and Reunion. Longmans, Green and Co. 

3. Hosmer, Appeal to Arms. American Nation, Vol. XX. Harper and Bros. 

4. Page, Robert E. Lee. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

For Pupils 

1. Southworth, Builders of Our Country. Book II. D. Appleton and Co. (Grants 

Lee.) 

2. Williamson, Robert E. Lee. B. F. Johnson Publishing Co. 

3. Brooks, The True Story of U. S. Grant. Lothrop, Lee and Shepard. 

4. Scoville, Brave Deeds of Union Soldiers. G. W. Jacobs and Co. 

5. Bruce, Brave Deeds of Confederate Soldiers. G. W. Jacobs and Co. 

6. McCarthy, Soldier Life in the Army of Northern Virginia. B. F. Johnson Pul> 

lishing Co. 

CHAPTERS XXX AND XXXI 
For Teachers 

1. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 , Vols. IV and V» 

The Macmillan Co. 

2. Wilson, Division and Reunion. Longmans, Green and Co. 

For Pupils 

1. Morris, Heroes of Progress. J. B. Lippincott Co. 

2. Roosevelt and Lodge, Hero Tales from American History. The Century Co. 

(Monitor and Merrimac, Death of Stonewall Jackson, Charge at Gettysburg.) 

3. Hart and Others (Hitchcock, editor), Decisive Battles of American History. 

Harper and Bros. (Appomattox.) 

4. Hart and Stevens, Romance of the Civil War. The Macmillan Co. 

5. Williamson, Life of Stonewall Jackson. B. F. Johnson Publishing Co. 

CHAPTER XXXII 
For Teachers 

1. Hosmer, Outcome of the Civil War, American Nation, Vol. XXI. Harper and 

Bros. Chapter iv (Life in War-time, North and South.) 

2. Chestnut, A Diary from Dixie. D. Appleton and Co. 

3. Smith, Forty Years of Washington Society. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

For Pupils 

X. Hart and Stevens, Romance of the Civil War. The Macmillan Co. 

2. Knipe Girls of ’ 64. The Macmillan Co. 

3. Hall, Half Hours in Southern History. B. F. Johnson Publishing Co., pp. 215- 

239. (Life in the South during the War of Secession.) 

CHAPTER XXXIII 
For Teachers 

1. Wilson, Division and Reunion. Longmans, Green and Co. 

2. Dunning, Reconstruction, Politioal and Economic. American Nation, Vol. XX£L 

Harper and Bros. 



REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS xlv 


For Pupils 

1. Barstow, Progress of a United People. The Century Co. (Reconstruction.) 

2 . Guerber, Story of the Great Republic. American Book Co., pp. 252-256. 

3. Hall, Half Hours in Southern History. B. F. Johnson Pub lishing Co., "pp.^^ 

304. (Reconstruction.) 

CHAPTER XXXIV 
For Teachers 

1. Latane, History of the United States. Allyn and Bacon. 

2. Sparks, Expansion of the American People. Scott, Forsman and Co. 

For Pupils 

1. Dole, New American Citizen. D. C. Heath and Co., pp. 345-352. (Arbitration.) 

2. Blaisdell, The Story of American History. Ginn and Co., pp. 396-399. (Alabama 

Claims.) 

CHAPTER XXXV 
For Teachers 

x. Sparks, Expansion of American People. Scott, Forsman and Co., pp. 366-376. 
(Transcontinental Railroad.) 

2. Paxson, Last American Frontier. The Macmillan Co. (Railroads, Sioux War.) 

3. Bruce, The Rise of the New South. George Barrie and Son. 

For Pupils 

1. Fans, Real Stories from Our History. Ginn and Co. 

2. Custer, The Boy General , A Story of the Life of Custer. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

3. Riis, The Making of an American. The Macmillan Co. 

4. Sterne, My Mother and I. The Macmillan Co. 

5. Hughes, Community Civics. Allyn and Bacon (Chapter xxvi, Amerina, The 

Melting Pot.) 

6. Lessons in Community and National Life, Department of Interior. C 29, C 31. 

7. Antin, Story of a Little Immigrant. Houghton Mifflin Co. (From The Promised 

Land) 

CHAPTER XXXVI 
For Teachers 

I. Sparks, National Development. American Nation, Vol. XXHI. Harper and 
Brothers. Chapters iii and iv. 

For Pupils 

1. Bolton, Poor Boys Who Became Famous. T. Y. Crowell and Co. (Sir Henry 

Bessemer.) 

2. Baker, R. S., Boys’ Book of Inventions. Doubleday Page and Co. (Wireless, 

X-Ray, Motor Vehicles.) 

3. Doubleday, Stones of Inventions. Doubleday, Page and Co. 

4. Morris, Heroes of Progress. J. B. Lippincott Co. (Susan B. Anthony, Eliza¬ 

beth C. Staunton, Lucretia Mott, and Horace Greeley, Premier of American 
Editors.) 

5. Barstow (editor), Progress of a United People. The Century Co. (Associated 

Press, Wright Brothers Aeroplanes, account by C. and W. Wright.) 

6 . Mowry, American Inventions and Inventors. Silver, Burdett and Co. (Kero¬ 

sene, Printing Press.) 


Xlvi REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS 


7. Meadowcroft, Boy’s Life of Edison. Harper and Brothers. 

8 . Stone and Fickett, Famous Days in the Century of Invention. D. C. Heath 

and Co. . , 

CHAPTER XXXVII 
For Teachers 

1. West, American History and Government. Allyn and Bacon. 

2. Sparks, National Development. American Nation, Vol. XXIII. Chapters x 

and xii. Harper and Brothers. 

For Pupils 

1. Dunn, Community and Citizen. D. C. Heath and Co., pp. 210-213 (Civil 

Service), 229-241 (Government of City), 102-104 (Interstate Commerce). 

2. Hughes, Community Civics. Allyn and Bacon. (Chapter xxii, Labor and 

Industry.) 

CHAPTER XXXVIII 
For Teachers 

1. Hazen, Europe Since 1815. Henry Holt and Co. 

2. Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

For Pupils 

1. Ashley, Modern European Civilization. The Macmillan Co. 

2. Guerber, Story of Modern France. American Book Co. 

3. Tappan, England’s Story. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

4. Webster, Modern European History. D. C. Heath and Co. 

CHAPTER XXXIX 
For Teachers 

1. Hart and Others (Hitchcock, editor), Decisive Battles of American History, 

Harper and Brothers. (Manila, Santiago.) 

2. Sparks, Expansion of the American People. Scott, Forsman and Co. (438- 

4S3-) (Colonial System.) 

3. Latane, America as a World Power. American Nation, Vol. XXV. Chapters i c 

ii, v. Harper and Brothers. 

For Pupils 

x. Gordy, American Leaders and Heroes. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

2. Barstow (editor), Progress of a United People. The Century Co. (Oregon’s 

Great Voyage, Battle of Manila Bay, Account of War by William McKinley.) 

3. Hodgson, First Course in American History. (Book II.) D. C. Heath and Co. 

CHAPTER XL 
For Teachers 

1. Latane, America as a World Power. American Nation, Vol. XXV. Harpef 

and Brothers. ^Chapter iv, Peace Negotiations.) (Chapter v, Phillipine In¬ 
surrection.) (Chapter xii, Panama Canal.) 

2. West, American History and Government. Allyn and Bacon. 

3. Roosevelt, An Autobiography, New Edition, 1919. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

For Pupils 

s. Parkman, Heroes of To-day. The Century Co. (Goethals.) 

So DuPuy, Uncle Sam's Modern Miracles. Frederick A. Stokes Co. (Chapter xvii, 
Teaching Sanitation to World, Gorgas, Reed.) (Chapter ii, Awakening the 
Filipino.) (Chapter viii, Rejuvenating Porto Rico.) 


REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS xlvii 


3. Morris, Our Island Empire. (Porto Rico, Hawaii and the Philippines.) J. B. 

Lippincott and Co. 

4. Hagedorn, Boy’s Life of Theodore Roosevelt. Harper and Bros. 

CHAPTER XLI 
For Teachers 

1. Barstow (editor), Progress of a United People. The Century Co., pp. 160—179. 

(Civic Improvement, Irrigation, Conservation.) 

2. West, American History and Government. Allyn and Bacon. 

For Pupils 

1. Hughes, Community Civics. Allyn and Bacon. (Chapter xxxiv, Saving Our 

National Resources.) (Chapter xxxvii, American Country Life.) 

2. Dunn, Community and Citizen. D. C. Heath and Co. (Chapter xx, Changing 

Methods of Government.) 

3. Lessons in Community and National Life- Department of Interior. C 5, C 6, 

C 7: B 5, B 11. N 

4. DuPuy, Uncle Sam’s Modern Miracles. Frederick A. Stokes Co. (Mail, Im¬ 
migrants, transforming deserts, weather bureau.) 

CHAPTER XLII 
For Teachers 

1. Seymour, Diplomatic Background of the War. Yale University Press. 

2. Wilson, Why We are at War. In our First Year of War. Harper and Bros. 

(Addresses to Congress, and the People by Pres. Wilson.) 

3. Davis, William S., Roots of the War. The Century Co. 

4. Gibbons, The New Map of Europe. The Century Co. 

5. Schurman, The Balkan Wars. Princeton University Press. 

6 . Sarolea, The Anglo-German Problem. Amer. ed., G. P. Putnam’s Sons. (See 

chapter on character of Kaiser written and published before the war; very 
interesting.) 

For Pupils 

X. McKinley, School History of Great War. American Book Co. 

2. Tappan, The Little Book of the War. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

3. Nida, Story of the World War. Hale Book Co. 

4. McLaughlin, Sixteen Causes of War. University of Chicago Press. (Pam¬ 

phlet; five cents each.) 

5 . Gordy, Causes and Meaning of Great War. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

CHAPTER XLIII 
For Teachers 

1. Bond, Inventions of the Great War. The Century Co. (Poison Gas, Tanks, 
Submarines.) 

For Pupils 

1. Doubleday, Stories of Inventors. Doubleday, Page and Co. 

2. Baker, Boy’s Book of Inventors. Doubleday, Page and Co. 

CHAPTER XLIV 

For Teachers 

1. Ogg, National Progress. American Nation, Vol. XXVII, Harper and Bros. 


xlviii REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS 


For Pupils 

1. Parkman, Heroines of Service. The Century Co. (Clara Barton.) 

2. Parkman, Heroes of To-day. The Century Co. (Hoover.) 

3. Tappan. The Little Story of the War. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

4. McKinley and Others, School History of the Great War. American Book Co. 

5. McKinley, Collected Material for the Study of the War. McKinley Publishing Co* 

6. DuPuy, Uncle Sam , Fighter. Frederick A. Stokes Co. 

7. Nida, Story of the World War. Hale Book Co. 

CHAPTER XLV 

For Teachers 

1. Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary European History. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

(Chapter xxx, World War.) 

2. Laughlin, Foch, the Man. Fleming H. Revell Co. 

3. Harding, A Syllabus of the Great War, History Teachers' Magazine. McKinley 

Publishing Co. 

For Pupils 

1. Johnston, Famous Generals of the Great War. The Page Co. 

2. Parkman, Fighters for Peace. The Century Co. (Pershing and others.) 

3. Tomlinson, Life of Gen. Pershing. D. Appleton and Co. 

HISTORICAL FICTION AND POETRY 

I. Colonial Period 

1. Austin, Standish of Standish (Plymouth). Houghton M ifflin Co. 

2. Cooper, Satanstoe (New York). G. P. Putman’s Sons. 

3. Holland, The Bay Path (Conn.). Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

4. Simms, The Yemassee. B. F. Johnson Publishing Co. 

II. Revolutionary Period 

1. Altsheler, Young Trailers. D. Appleton and Co. 

2. Thompson, Alice of Old Vincennes (Clark at Vincennes). Grossett and 

Dunlap. 

3. Kennedy, Horseshoe Robinson. Newson and Co. 

4. Ogden, A Loyal Little Redcoat. Frederick A. Stokes Co. 

5. Altsheler, The Sun of Quebec. D. Appleton and Co. 

III. From Close of the Revolution to the War of Secession 

1. Eggleston, The Ho osier Schoolmaster. Hurst and Co. 

2. Monroe, Golden Days of ’ 49. Dodd, Mead and Co. 

3. Henderson, Strange Stories of 1812. Harper and Bros. 

4. Page, In Old Virginia. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

5. Brooks, Boy Emigrants. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

6 . Garland, Boy Life on the Prairie-. The Macmillan Co. 

IV. The War of Secession and Reconstruction 

x. Andrews, A Perfect Tribute. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

2. Harris, A Little Union Scout. Doubleday, Page and Co. 

3. Page. Among the Camps. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

Two Little Confederates. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

4. Page, Red Rock. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

5. Churchill, Crisis. The Macmillan Co. 


REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS AND PUPILS xlii’ 


6. Fox, LiUle Shepherd of Kingdom Come. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 

7. Eggleston, Southern Soldier Stories. The Macmillan Co. 

8. Jackson, Ramona. Little Brown and Co. 

V Contemporary Life 

z. Garland, A Little Norsk. D. Appleton and Co. 

2. Kelly, Little Citizens. Doubleday Page and Co. 

3. Brooks, Last of the Stronghearts. E. P. Dutton and Co. 

4. Grinnell, Jack, The Young Ranchman. 

Jack among the Indians. Frederick A. Stokes Co. 

5. Otis, When Dewey Came to Manila. Dana Estes and Co. 

6. Hough, Young Alaskans. Harper and Bros. 

7. Austin, Uncle Sam's Secrets. D. Appleton and Co. 

VI. Collections of Poems Illustrative of American Life 

1. Matthews, Poe ms of A merican Patriotism. Chas Scribner’s Sons. 

2. Moore, Songs and Ballads of the Southern People. D. Appleton and Co* 

3. Moore, Songs and Ballads of the American Revolution. Hurst and Co. 

4. South, Story of our Country in Song and Poetry. A. Flanagan and Co. 

5. Stevenson, Poems of American History. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

6. Songs of the Blue and the Gray. Hurst and Co. 

7. Clarke, Treasury of War Poetry, 2 vols. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

8 . Battle Line of Democracy. Government Printing Office, Washington, 

D ^ (Prose and Poetry of Great War.) 


PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


Key to Symbols 


a 

as in bay, 

e 

as in her, 

a 

as in bat, 

e 

as in they, 

k 

as in bare, 

i 

as in pie, 

a 

as in farm, 

I 

as in bit, 

a 

as in solace, 

6 

as in go, 

a 

as in cask, 

6 

as in g&t, 

a 

as in walk, 

6 

as in corn, 

e 

as in be, 

oo 

as in moon 

g 

as in bSt, 

u 

as in tune, 

k 

as in there, 

u 

as in but, 


e represents a sound similar to, but shorter than, short u — sometimes 
almost silent, 
g hard as in get. 
n as in ink, hunger, 
ow has the sound of ow in how. 


Acadia, a-ka'di-a 
Alamo, a/la-mo 
Alsace, al-sas' 

Andre, an'dra or an'drl 
Andros, an'dros 
Annapolis, &n-nap'o-lis 
Antietam, an-te'tam 
Artois, ar-twa' 

Bahama, ba-ha'ma 
Balboa, bal-bo'a 
Beauregard, bo're-gard' 
Bienville, be'an-vel' 
Biloxi, bil-ox'i 
Bon Homme Richard, 
bo-nom're-sharr' 


Breton, brSt'on 

Buena Vista, bwa'na ves'tii 

Cabot, kab'ot 
Calvert, kal'vert 
Cambrai, cam-bra 
Canon, kan'yun 
Carteret, kar'ter-et 
Cartier, kar'tya' 

Cavour, ka-voor' 

Cerro Gordo, ser'ro g6r'd6 
Cervera, thar-va'ra 
Champlain, sham'plan' 
Chateau-Thierry, sha-to'tyfi-rg' 
Chippewa, chip'pe-wa 
Cibola, se'bo-la 


1 


PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


Coligny, Gaspard de, 
gas-parr de ko-len'ye 
Concord, konk'urd 
Coronado, ko-ro-na'tho 
Corsair, kor'sar 

De Grasse, de gras' 

De Kalb, de k&lb' 

D’Estaing, des't&n' 

Diaz, de'ath 
Duquesne, du'kan' 

El Caney, el ka'na 
Entente Cordiale, an-tant' kor-dyal' 
Eric, er'ik 
Ericson, 6r'ik-son 

Farragut, far'a-gut 
Foch, fosh 
Fremont, fre-m 5 nt' 

Garibaldi, ga-re-bal'dS 
Genet, zhe-na' 

Goliad, go'li-ad' 

Gourges, Dominique de, 
do'me'nek de goorg 
Guam, gwam 
Guiana, ge-a'na 

Hawaii, ha-w!'e 
Hayti, ha'ti 
Houston, hu'ston 
Huerta, hwer'ta 
Huguenot, hu'ge-ndt 

Iberville, e-ber-vel' 

Iroquois, ir-o-kwoi' 

Jesuit, jSz'u-it 
Joffre, zhbff 

Kosciuszko, kos-sl-us'ko 

La Espagnola, la es-pan-yo'la 
La Fayette, la'fa'y6t' 


La Salle, Robert de, 
ro'bairr de la sal' 

Laudonniere, Rene de, 
re-na' de lo'do'ne-er' 

Liege, le-azh' 

Magellan, ma-jel'an 
Manila, ma-nil'la 
Marconi, mar-ko'ne 
Marquette, mar'ket' 

Menendez de Aviles, Fedro, 

Pe'dro ma-nen'deth da a-vee'les 
Monterey, mon-te-ra' 

Moultrie, mool'tri 

New Orleans, nu or'le-ana 
Nina, nen'ya 

Oglethorpe, o'g’l-thorp 
Oklahoma, o-kla-ho'ma 

Palos, pa'los 

Pamlico, pam'li-kd 

Pascua Florida, pas-cwa fldr'Fdi 

Pequot, pe'kwot 

Philippine, fil'ip'in 

Pinta, pen'ta 

Pitcairn, pit'karn 

Pocahontas, po-ka-hdn'tas 

Ponce de Leon, pon'tha da la-6n' 

Porto Rico, por'to re'ko 

Powhatan, pow-ha-t&n' 

Pueblo, pweb'lo 
Pulaski, pu-l&s'ke 

Raleigh, raw'll 
Ribault, Jean, zh 5 n re'bO' 
Roosevelt, roz'e-velt 
Rosecrans, ro'ze-kr&nss 

Samoa, sa-mo'a 
San Juan, san hoo-an' 

Santa Maria, san'ta ma-re'd 

Santiago, san-te-a'go 

Santo Domingo, san'to do-mgn'g 5 


Iii 


PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


Schley, sli 
Schofield, sko'feld 
Schuyler, ski'ler 
Serapis, se-ra'pis 
Sevier, se-ver' 

Seville, se-vil' 
Shaftesbury, shafts'ber-! 
Sioux, soo 
Slidell, sli-del' 

Steuben, stu'ben 
Stuyvesant, stl've-sant 

Tarleton, tarl'ton 
Tecumseh, te-kum'seh 
Tippecanoe, tip'e-ka-n 55 


Tomochichi, tom'o-che-chl 
Tuscarora, tus‘ka-ro'ra 

Valladolid, val-ya-tho-leth' 
Venezuela, ven'e-zwe'la 
Verdun, ver-dun' 

Vespucci, Amerigo, 
a-ma-ree'go ves-poot'chee 
Vincennes, vin-senz' 

Watauga, wa-ta'ga 
Whitefield, whit'feld 
Wilmot, wil'mot 


Ypres, epi 


INDEX 


Abolitionists, 264-267. 

Adams, Henry, 410. 

Adams, John, 200-203; portrait, 
200; biography in the Appendix. 

Adams, John Quincy, as President, 
255; portrait, 255; presents de- 
titions of abolitionists, 267; 
biography in the Appendix. 

Adams, Samuel, 122, 130; portrait, 
122; biography in the Appendix. 

Aeroplane, the, 405, 482, 527, 536. 

Agriculture, 177, 228, 236, 294, 388. 

Aguinaldo, Don Emilio, 448. 

Alabama, 19, 85, 217; as a state, 
230, 262 (note), 316, 319, 354, 
376 . 

Alabama Claims, the, 385. 

Alabama , the, 340. 

Alamance, battle of, 123. 

Alamo, the, 274. 

Alaska, 384. 

Albany, Congress of, 91. 

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 409. 

Alien and Sedition Laws, 201. 

Alsace-Lorraine, 432, 520, 521. 

America, discovery of, 1-10. 

American Federation of Labor, the, 
406. 

American Flag, the, 145. 

American Library Association, 508. 

Anaesthesia, 299. 

Anderson, Robert, 323. 

Andre, John, 158 (note). 

Andros, Edmund, 78; portrait, 78. 

Annapolis (Maryland), 125, 171. 

Annapolis (Nova Scotia), 88, 89. 

Annapolis Convention, the, 171. 

Antietam (or Sharpsburg), battle of, 
335 - 

Appomattox, surrender of Lee at, 
358 - 

Arbitration, in international af¬ 
fairs, 385, 418; in labor disputes, 
420, 463. 

Argonne Forest, battle of, 518. 

Arizona, 20, 272, 398. 


Arkansas, 19, 284, 324, 376. 

Armaments, 434, 472, 520, 531, 532. 

“Armed Neutrality,” the, 153. 

Arnold, Benedict, 147, 158 (note), 
167. 

Arthur, Chester A., 414; portrait, 
414; biography in the Appendix. 

Artois, battle of, 489. 

Ashburton treaty, the, 269. 

Ashe, John, 120. 

Assumption of State debts, 190. 

Atlanta, 352, 353, 400. 

Atlanta, battle of, 353. 

Atlantic cable, the, 403, 423. 

Atlantic coast, the, explored, 18. 

Austin, Moses F. and Stephen F., 
273 - . 

Australian Ballot Law, the, 461. 

Austria, in the Quadruple Alliance, 
252; condition of, in the nine¬ 
teenth century, 427, 430; op¬ 
presses Serbia, 476; annexes 
Bosnia and Herzegovina, 477; 
declares war on Serbia, 479; in 
the World War, 481-494, 510- 
523 - 

Automobile, the, 405, 482. 

Bacon’s Rebellion, 73. 

Balance of Power, the, 21, 434. 

Balboa, Nunez de, 17; portrait, 17. 

Balkan States, the, in the nine¬ 
teenth century, 432-433; op¬ 
pressed by Austria, 476; war with 
Turkey, 477; in the World War, 
481-494, 510 - 523 - 

Ballot reform, 461. 

Baltimore (city), 219, 242, 289, 400. 

Baltimore, Lords (see Calvert). 

Bancroft, George, 302; portrait, 303. 

Bancroft, Hubert Howe, 410. 

Bank, the National, 191, 222, 263; 
the Postal Savings, 464; the Re¬ 
serve, 466; the Farm Loan, 466; 
the state banks, 263. 

Bean, William, 105. 


liii 


liv 


INDEX 


Beauregard, P. G. T., 323, 327; 
portrait, 323. 

Belgium, neutrality of, guaranteed, 
426; neutrality of, violated, 484; 
in the World War, 481-494, 510- 
523 - 

Bell, Alexander Graham, 404. 

Bell, John, 315. 

Berkeley, Sir William, 73. 

Berlin, Congress of, 433. 

“Berlin to Bagdad,” 475. 

Bessemer, Henry, 402. 

Bienville, 85. 

Biloxi, 85. 

Birmingham, 400. 

Bismarck, Otto von, 429-432, 471. 

Blockade, of the Napoleonic Wars, 
210; of the Second War with 
Great Britain, 216; of the War of 
Secession, 326, 336, 338, 339, 354, 
363-370; of the World War, 488, 
496-499, 504. 

Blockade (paper), 210. 

Blockade Runners, 364. 

Bolsheviki, the, 512, 513. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon. (See Na¬ 
poleon I.) 

Bon Homme Richard, the, 154. 

Boone, Daniel, 106; portrait, 106. 

Boston, 41, 123, 124, 126, 135, 184, 
242, 289, 400. 

Braddock, Edward, 92. 

Bragg, Braxton, 33i"33 2 , 347 , 348 ; 
portrait, 331. 

Brandywine, battle of, 148. 

Breckinridge, John C., 315. 

Brown, Charles Brogden, 245. 

Brown, John, 309, 312. 

Bryan, William J., 421, 451, 464. 

Bryant, William Cullen, 246, 301; 
biography in the Appendix. 

Buccaneers, 46. 

Buchanan, James, 311, 319; por¬ 
trait, 311; biography in the Ap¬ 
pendix. 

Buell, Don Carlos, 330, 332; por¬ 
trait, 330. 

Buena Vista, battle of, 280. 

Bulgaria, gains her independence, 
433; in the Balkan wars, 477; in 
the World War, 481-494, 510- 
523 - 

Bull Run (or Manassas), first battle 
of, 327; second battle of, 335. 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 133. 

Burgoyne, General, 146. 


Burke, Edmund, 121; portrait, 121. 

Burnside, Ambrose E., 336. 

Burr, Aaron, 203 (note); 206 (note). 

Byrd, Richard E., 537. 

Cabinet, the, 189. 

Cabot, John, 9. 

Calhoun, John C., 257, 262, 306 
(note); portrait, 257; biography 
in the Appendix. 

California, under Spanish and 
Mexican rule, 272; seized by 
Americans, 280; ceded to the 
United States, 281; discovery of 
gold in, 284; state government 
formed in, 286; struggle over 
the admission of, 304-306. 

Calvert, Cecilius, second Lord Bal¬ 
timore, 42; portrait, 42. 

Calvert, George, first Lord Balti¬ 
more, 42. 

Cambrai, battle of, 512. 

Camden, battle of, 158. 

Canada, French settlement of, 24; 
Champlain in, 48; missionaries 
in, 49; traders in, 49; slow 
growth of, 49; relations with 
Louisiana, 85; ceded to Great 
Britain, 95. 

Capital and labor, 234, 405-406, 
415, 416, 420, 456, 463. 

Carolina, 23, 68-72. (See also 
North and South Carolina.) 

“Carpet-bag” governments, 377, 
379, 380, 382. 

Carranza, Venustiano, 466, 467. 

Cartier, Jacques, 23. 

Catholic missionaries, 49. 

Catholics, 21, 42-45. 

Cavaliers, 58. 

Cavour, Count, 429. 

Cervera, Admiral, 441. 

Champlain, Samuel de, 24, 48. 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 344. 

Charles I of England, 40, 42, 58. 

Charles II of England, 59, 68, 73, 75, 
77 - 

Charles IX of France, 23. 

Charles X of France, 425. 

Charles Albert, 428. 

Charleston, 71, 89, 125, 136, 156, 
164, 356. 

Charlotte, 138, 159. 

Chateau-Thierry, battle of, 516. 

Chattanooga, battles around, 347, 
348 . 


INDEX 


lv 


Chesapeake , the, 211. 

Chicago, 177, 289, 296, 400,416, 420. 

Chickamauga, battle of, 347. 

Chippewa River, battle of, 217. 

Church, established (or state), 37. 

Cincinnati, 177, 289. 

Cities, growth of, 183, 242, 289, 
399-400; corruption in govern¬ 
ments of, 412; reform of govern¬ 
ments of, 462. 

Civil Service Law, the, 413, 414, 415. 

Clark, George Rogers, 149; por¬ 
trait, 149. 

Clark, William, 206. 

Clarke, Elijah, 158. 

Clay, Henry, 254, 262, 305, 306 
(note); portrait, 254; biography 
in the Appendix. 

Clemens, Samuel L. (“Mark 
Twain”), 410. 

Cleveland, Grover, 415-417, 418- 
421; portrait, 415; biography in 
the Appendix. 

Clinton, General, 153, 156, 162. 

Cold Harbor, battle of, 350. 

Coligny, Gaspard de, 23. 

Colombia, Republic of, the, 453. 

Colonies, the English, life in, 60-62, 
98-106. 

Colorado, 390, 398. 

Columbia, 356. 

Columbus, Christopher, 3-9. 

Commerce, 1-3, 67, 108, 169, 178, 
290, 388, 391. 

Commission form of government, 
the, 462. 

Compromises, 173, 248, 262, 305, 
318. 

Concord, battle of, 130. 

Confederate States, the, organiza¬ 
tion of, 319; collapse of, 358; 
life in, 363-370. 

Confederation, the, 167-171. 

Confederation, the Articles of, 167. 

Congress, Stamp Act, 120; Con¬ 
tinental, 127, 133; Federal, 171. 

Connecticut, as a colony, 55, 65, 66, 
78; as a state, 215, 221. 

Conscription, in War of Secession, 
342; in Europe, 430, 434; in 
World War, 488, 503. 

Conservation, 458. 

Constantinople, 2, 491. 

Constitution of the United States, 
171-174. 

Constitution, the, 216. 


Constitutional Amendments, 371, 
374 , 376, 379 - 

Continental Army, the, 133, 134, 
142, 155 - 

Continental Congress, the (see 
Congress). 

Continental Money (see Money). 

Coolidge, Calvin, 533, 535. 

Cooper, James Eenimore, 246, 301; 
portrait, 245; biography in the 
Appendix. 

Corn, 12, 33, 43, 60, 178, 228, 295, 
388, 395- 

Cornwallis, Lord, 142, 144, 158-163. 

Coronado, Francisco de, 20. 

Corporations, 405, 415, 416, 456, 
463, 466. 

Corsairs, 22. 

Cortez, Hernando, 18. 

Cotton, 179, 228, 236, 295, 326, 338, 
370, 388, 395, 403 (note). 

Cotton gin, the, 235. 

Council of New England, 40. 

Cowpens, battle of, 160. 

Crawford, William H., 254. 

Creeks, the, 217, 223. 

Crime, punishment for (1789), 180. 

Cromwell, Oliver, 58. 

Cruisers (Confederate), 340, 385. 

Cuba, war of, for independence, 
437-444; the republic of, 450. 

Cumberland Gap, 53. 

Cumberland Road, the, 239, 296. 

Custer Massacre, the, 393. 

Danish West Indies, the, 450. 

Dardanelles Campaign, the, 491. 

Dare, Virginia, 27. 

Davis, Jefferson, President of the 
Confederate States, 319, 324; 
capture of and imprisonment of, 
358; portrait facing 320; biog¬ 
raphy in the Appendix. 

“Dawes Plan,” the, 535. 

Debt, the Revolutionary, 190; re¬ 
funding of debt caused by the 
War of Secession, 386. 

Declaration of Independence, Amer¬ 
ican, 137-140; Mecklenburg, 138 
(note). 

D’Estaing, Count, 156. 

De Grasse, Count, 163. 

De Kalb, Baron, 152. 

Delaware, 52, 76, 324. 

De Leon, Ponce, 16; portrait, 17. 


Ivi 


INDEX 


Democratic party, the beginning of, 
193 * 

De Soto, Hernando, 19. 

Detroit, 104, 215. 

Dewey, George, 440-441; portrait, 
441. 

Diaz, Porfirio, 466. 

Douglas, Stephen A., 308, 315. 

Draft laws (see Conscription). 

Draft Riot, the, 343. 

Dred Scott decision, the, 311. 

Dual Alliance, the 473, 483. 

Durham, 358. 

Dutch, the, explorations of, 28; in 
the West Indies, 46; settlement 
of New Netherland by, 50-53, 
63-64; surrender of New Nether¬ 
land by, 68; war of, with Great 
Britain, 153. 

Dynamo, the, 404. 

Early, Jubal A., 350. 

East, the, trade with, in Middle 
Ages, 1. 

Edison, Thomas A., 404; biog¬ 
raphy in the Appendix. 

Education, 60, 62, 186, 244, 300, 
407-408. 

Edwards, Jonathan, 103. 

El Caney, 443. 

Electrical Commission, the, 380. 

Electricity, 291, 403, 404, 460. 

Electric light, 404. 

Electric railways, 404. 

Elizabeth, Queen of England, 21, 25. 

Emancipation Proclamation, the, 
34i. 

Embargo, the Long, 211. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 302; biog¬ 
raphy in the Appendix. 

Endicott, John, 40. 

England, under Elizabeth, 21, 25; 
James I, 36; Charles I, 40, 58; 
Cromwell, 58, 59; seizes New 
Netherland, 68; under Charles 
II, 74; under James II, 77; 

“ Revolution of 1688” in, 78; 
Wars of, with France, 87-93; 
with Spain, 89. (See also Great 
Britain.) 

English, explorations of, 25-27; 
rivalry with the Dutch, 67. 

“Era of Good Feeling,” the, 246. 

Erie Canal, the, 239. 

Established Church, the (see 
Church). 


Europe, conditions of, in Middle 
Ages, 1-3, 16, 21; in the nine¬ 
teenth century, 423-435; Ger¬ 
many seeks to dominate, 469-479; 
in the World War 481-523. 

Eutaw Springs, battle of, 161. 

Expansion, opposition to, 446. 

Expositions, 402. 

Express, the, 298. 

Farm Loan Banks, 466. 

Farragut, David G., 331, 354, 355 J 
portrait, 331. 

Fashions, 183, 242, 294. 

Federalist party, the, founding of, 
192. 

Ferdinand V of Spain, 4. 

Ferdinand VII of Spain, 251. 

Ferguson, Major, 159. 

Field, Cyrus W., 403. 

Field, Eugene, 408. 

“Fifty-four, forty, or fight,” 278. 

Fillmore, Millard, 306; portrait, 
306; biography in the Appendix. 

Fiske, John, 410. 

“Five Intolerable Acts,” the, 125. 

Florida, discovery of, 16; as a 
Spanish or British colony, 19, 20, 
23, 95,164, 223; purchased by the 
United States, 224; as a state, 
284, 316, 376, 380, 382 (note). 

Foch, Ferdinand, 515-519; por¬ 
trait, 515. 

Forrest, Nathan B., 353 (note). 

Fort Caroline, 24. 

Fort Donelson, 329. 

Fort Duquesne, 91, 92. 

Fort Mims, 218. 

Fort Moultrie, 136. 

Fort Necessity, 91. 

Fort Sumter, 319, 320, 323. 

“Forty-niners,” the, 285. 

France, condition of, in sixteenth 
century, 21; under Louis XIV, 
87; at war with Great Britain, 
87-96; colonial policy of, 109; 
alliance with the United States 
in Revolutionary War, 152; as¬ 
sists in attack on Savannah, 156; 
assists at Yorktown, 162; con¬ 
dition of (1789), 195; Revolution 

t in, 195-197; attacks American 
commerce, 200; the “X. Y. Z.” 
affair with, 200; attacks neutral 
commerce, 210; condition of, in 
nineteenth century, 425; in 


INDEX 


lvii 


Franco-Prussian War, 431; in 
World War, 481-494, 510-523. 

Francis I of France, 22. 

Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, 478. 

Franco-Prussian War, the, 431. 

Franklin, battle of, 354. 

Franklin, Benjamin, 103, 153; por¬ 
trait, 153; biography in the Ap¬ 
pendix. 

Franklin, state of, 169, 181. 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 336. 

Freedman’s Bureau, the, 373. 

“Free Silver,” 420, 421. 

Free Soil party, the, 304. 

Fremont, John C., 275, 280, 311. 

French and Indian War, 90-96. 

French explorations and early set¬ 
tlements, 22-25. 

French traders, 49. 

Fugitive Slave Law, 306. 

Fulton, Robert, 237; biography in 
the Appendix. 

Gadsden, Christopher, 119. 

Gadsden Purchase, the, 281. 

Gage, General, 128, 130, 132. 

Gallatin, Albert, 204; biography in 
the Appendix. 

Garfield, James A., 414; portrait, 
414; biography in the Appendix. 

Garibaldi, 429. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, 264. 

Gates, Horatio, 146, 147, 158. 

Genet, “Citizen,” 198. 

George II of England, 80, 90. 

George III of England, m, 116; 
portrait, 117. 

Georgia, traversed by De Soto, 19; 
as a colony, 80-82, 89, 98; in the 
Revolution, 123, 138, 156, 161, 
163; as a state, 176, 179, 262 
(note), 316, 352, 376, 379. 

Germantown, battle of, 148. 

Germany, in nineteenth century, 
429-432; seeks to dominate the 
world, 469-479; declares war on 
Russia, 479; in the World War, 
481-523. 

Gettysburg, battle of, 344. 

Goldsboro, 357. 

Goliad, massacre at, 274. 

Goodyear, Charles, 299. 

Gordon, John B., 357; portrait, 
357. 

Gourges, Dominique de, 24. 

“Grand Model,” the, 69. 


Grant, Ulysses S., in War of Seces¬ 
sion, 329, 330, 346-352, 349-352, 
355 - 358 ; as President, 377-381, 
412; portrait facing 378; biog¬ 
raphy in the Appendix. 

Great Britain, colonial policy of, 
108-114; decides to tax America, 
114; condition of, under George 
III, 115, 116; at war with the 
United States (Revolutionary), 
130-164; attacks of, on American 
commerce, 198; Jay’s treaty with, 
199; attacks of, on neutral com¬ 
merce, 210; second war of the 
United States with, 213-222; 
treaties with the United States 
fixing boundaries, 222, 269, 278; 
sympathy of, with the Confeder¬ 
acy, 338, 341; the Alabama claims 
against, 385; arbitrates the sea 
fishery and Venezuelan questions, 
418; reforms in, 426; colonial 
system of, in nineteenth century, 
433; in the World War, 481-523 
(see also England). 

Greece, 433. 

Greeley, Horace, 379. 

Greenbacks, 360, 386. 

Greene, Nathanael, 160-167. 

Guam, 444, 448, 450. 

Guilford Courthouse, battle of, 160. 

Guthrie, 397. 

Hague Peace Conferences, the, 474. 

Haig, General Sir Douglas, 510, 512, 
5i4. 

Hamilton, Alexander, 174, 190, 193, 
206 (note); portrait, 190; biog¬ 
raphy in the Appendix. 

Hampton, Wade, 356; portrait, 356. 

Hancock, John, 130. 

Hancock, Winfield Scott, 346. 

Harding, Warren G., 530, 533. 

Harper’s Ferry, 312. 

Harrison, Benjamin, 417-418; por¬ 
trait, 417; biography in the 
Appendix. 

Harrison, William Henry, 213, 217; 
as President, 268; portrait, 269; 
biography in the Appendix. 

Harrod, James, 106. 

Harte, Bret, 410. 

Hartford Convention, the, 221. 

Harvard College, 62. 

Havana, 441. 

Hawaii, 448, 450. 


lviii 


INDEX 


Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 302; biog¬ 
raphy in the Appendix. 

Hayes, Rutherford B., dispute about 
his election to the Presidency, 380; 
as President, 381-382, 407, 413; 
portrait, 381; biography in the 
Appendix. 

Hayne, Paul Hamilton, 409. 

Hayne, Robert Y., 261. 

Henry VII of England, 9. 

Henry, Patrick, 112, 1193 150; por¬ 
trait, 112; biography in the 
Appendix. 

Hessians, the, 133’, 144. 

“Hindenburg line,” the, 510, 512, 
517, S 1 ^. 

Hindenburg, von, 487, 510. 

Hobson, Richmond P., 442 (note). 

Hoe, Richard M., 299. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 302; biog¬ 
raphy in the Appendix. 

Hood, John B., 352-354; portrait, 
353 - 

Hooker, Joseph, 344. 

Hoover, Herbert C., 538. 

Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 217. 

Houston, Sam, 274; portrait, 274. 

Howe, Elias, 299; biography in the 
Appendix. 

Howe, General, 135, 141, 147, i 53 - 

Howells, William Dean, 409. 

Hudson, Henry, 28. 

Huguenots, the, 21, 23-24, 71. 

Hungary, 427. 

Iberville, 85. 

Idaho, 398. 

Illinois, 230. 

Immigration, 191, 230, 291, 398-399. 

Impressment, right of, 199. 

Indentured servants, 99. 

Indian, North American, n-14. 

Indiana, 230. 

Indigo, 72, 82, 179. 

“Industrial Revolution,” the, 231. 

Initiative and Referendum, the, 461. 

Internal Improvements, 239, 267. 

Interstate Commerce Act, the, 416. 

Iowa, 284. 

Irrigation, 459. 

Irving, Washington, 245; portrait, 
245; biography in the Appendix. 

Isabella, Queen of Spain, 4. 

Italia Irridenta , 429, 490, 520. 

Italy, in nineteenth century, 428- 
429; joins the Triple Alliance, 


435; in the World War, 481-494, 
510-523. 

Jackson, Andrew, 218, 219, 223, 254; 
as President, 259-264; portrait 
facing 260; biography in the 
Appendix. 

Jackson, Thomas J. (“Stonewall”), 
328 (note), 333-335, 3445 por¬ 
trait, 327; biography in the 
Appendix. 

James I of England, 28, 36, 37. 

James II of England, 77, 87. 

James, Henry, 409. 

Jamestown, settlement of, 31-36. 

Jasper, William, 136 (note). 

Jay, John, 174, 199; portrait, 199. 

Jefferson, Thomas, writes Decla¬ 
ration of Independence, 139; 
leader of Democratic party, 193; 
as President, 203-213; portrait 
facing 204; biography in the 
Appendix. 

Jesuit Missionaries, 49. 

Jewish Welfare Board, the, 508. 

Joffre, Joseph J. C., 486. 

Johnson, Andrew, 371-377; por¬ 
trait, 372; biography in the Ap¬ 
pendix. 

Johnston, Albert Sidney, 329, 330; 
portrait, 329. 

Johnston, Joseph E., 327, 333, 349, 
352 - 353 , 356 - 357 , 358; portrait, 
327; biography in the Appendix. 

Jones, John Paul, 154; portrait, 154. 

Kansas, 307, 309, 398. 

Kansas-Nebraska Act, the, 307, 311. 

Kearny, Stephen W., 280. 

Kellogg-Briand treaty, the, 537. 

Kennesaw Mountain, battle of, 352. 

Kentucky, 106, 202, 262 (note), 
324, 325, 326 (note), 331. 

Kerensky, 511, 512. 

Key, Francis Scott, 219 (note). 

King George’s War, 89. 

King Philip’s War, 66. 

King William’s War, 88. 

King’s Mountain, battle of, 158. 

Knights of Columbus, the, 508. 

Knights of Labor, the, 406. 

Kosciuszko, 152. 

Ku-Klux Klan, the, 378. 

Labor and labor unions, 234, 406" 
407, 4 ! 5 > 4i6, 420, 463. 


INDEX lix 


Lafayette, Marquis de, 152, 162; 
portrait, 152. 

Lake Erie, battle of, 217. 

Lanier, Sidney, 409; portrait, 409; 
biography in the Appendix. 

La Salle, Robert de, 84, 85; por¬ 
trait, 85. 

Laudonniere, Rene de, 23. 

Laurens, John, 155. 

Laws, early, in Virginia, 60; in 
Massachusetts, 61. 

Lee, “Light Horse Harry,” 161. 

Lee, Richard Henry, 139; portrait, 
139 - 

Lee, Robert Edward, captures John 
Brown, 313; in the War of Se¬ 
cession, 333-336, 344 - 346 , 349 “ 
352, 355, 357-358; portrait facing 
332; biography in the Appendix. 

Legislature, the first in America, 35. 

Lewis, Meriwether, 206. 

Lexington, battle of, 130. 

Liberator, the , 264. 

Liege, battle of, 485. 

Lincoln, Abraham, in debate with 
Stephen A. Douglas, 311; elected 
President, 315; as President, 320, 
321, 341, 355, 359, 372; portrait 
facing, 342; biography in the 
Appendix. 

Lincoln, Benjamin, 156. 

Lindbergh, Charles A., 537. 

Literature, 103, 245, 301, 409. 

London Company, the, 28, 31, 36. 

Long, Crawford W., 299. 

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 301; 
biography in the Appendix. 

Long Island, battle of, 131. 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 348. 

Louis XIV of France, 87, 88. 

Louis XVI of France, 152, 195, 196. 

Louis XVIII of France, 425. 

Louisburg, 90. 

Louisiana (state), 229, 316, 376, 380, 
382. 

Louisiana Territory, 85, 93, 204. 

Louis Philippe, 425. 

Louisville, 177. 

Lowell, James Russell, 302; biog¬ 
raphy in the Appendix. 

Loyal League, the, 378. 

Ludendorff, General, 514, 517, 518. 

Lundy’s Lane, battle of, 217. 

Lusitania, the, 500. 

McClellan, George B., 328, 329, 


332 - 336 , 355 ; portrait, 328; biog¬ 
raphy in the Appendix. 

McCormick, Cyrus H., 294; biog¬ 
raphy in the Appendix. 

Macdonough, Thomas, 219. 

McDowell, Irvin, 327, 333. 

McKinley, William, elected Presi¬ 
dent, 421; as President, 437-444, 
451; portrait, 421; biography in 
the Appendix. 

Madison, James, 171, 174; as 

President, 212-222; portrait, 212; 
biography in the Appendix. 

Magellan, Ferdinand, 18. 

Maine, 55 (note), 248, 300. 

Maine, the, 438. 

Manassas (see Bull Run). 

Manhattan Island, purchase of, 51. 

“Manifest Destiny,” 275. 

Manila, 440, 447. 

Manufactures, 108, 179, 234-235, 
289, 388, 399. 

Marconi, 404. 

Marion, Francis, 157. 

Marne, first battle of, 487; second 
battle of, 516. 

Marquette, Father, 84. 

Marshall, John, 203; portrait, 203; 
biography in the Appendix. 

Maryland, as a colony, 42-44, 61, 
77, 79; in the Revolution, 123, 
125; as a state, 167, 168, 219, 324, 
325, 326 (note). 

“Maryland, my Maryland,” 324 
(note). 

Mason and Dixon’s line, 76 (note). 

Mason, James M., 338. 

Massachusetts, as a colony, 40-42, 
62, 65, 78, 79; in the Revolution, 
119, 122, 126, 128; as a state, 215, 
221, 317 (note). 

Maury, Matthew F., 403. 

Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, 384. 

Mayflower, the, 38. 

“Mayflower Compact,” the, 38. 

Meade, George G., 344; portrait, 
344; biography in the Appendix. 

Mecklenburg Declaration of In¬ 
dependence, 138 (note). 

Memphis, 331, 353 (note), 400. 

Menendez, Pedro de Aviles, 24. 

Merrimac , the, 339. 

Mexico, conquered by the Span¬ 
iards, 17; War with the United 
States, 278-281; Maximilian in, 
384; revolution in, 466. 


Ix 


INDEX 


Michigan, 284. 

Miles, Nelson A., 443. 

Minnesota, 287, 398. 

“Minute Men,” 127. 

Missionary Ridge, battle oi, 348. 

Mississippi, 19, 85; as a state, 230, 
262 (note), 316, 331, 376, 379. 

Mississippi River, 19, 84, 85, 164, 
329, 331 ; 346 - 347 - 

Mississippi Valley, 53, 95, 104. 

Missouri, 19; struggle over ad¬ 
mission of, 246-248; as a state, 
248, 324, 325, 326 (note). 

Missouri Compromise, the, 248, 305, 
307 , 3 11 - 

“Mittel Europa,” 475. 

Mobile, 85. 

Mobile Bay, battle of', 354. 

Money, continental, 133, 149, 155; 
paper money in the Confedera¬ 
tion, 170; substitutes for money 
in the Confederation, 181; paper 
money of state banks, 263; green¬ 
backs, 360, 386; Confederate 
money, 364; “free silver,” 420, 
421. 

Monitor, the, 339. 

Monmouth, battle of, 153. 

Monroe, James, 222-225, 253, 257; 
portrait, 223; biography in the 
Appendix. 

Monroe Doctrine, the, 253, 384, 419, 
424 (note), 453 (note). 

Montana, 398. 

Montcalm, General, 93, 94. 

Monterey, 280. 

Montgomery, 319, 324. 

Moore’s Creek, battle of, 136. 

Morgan, Daniel, 147, 160. 

Morris, Robert, 181. 

Morse, S. F. B., 291; biography in 
the Appendix. 

Motley, John Lothrop, 302. 

Moultrie, William, 136. 

Murfreesboro (or Stone River), 
battle of, 332. 

Napoleon I, 200, 201, 205, 209, 251; 
portrait, 209. 

Napoleon III, 338, 384, 425, 431. 

Nashville (city), 330, 400. 

Nashville, battle of, 354. 

National Bank, the, 190, 222, 263. 

National Road, the, 239. 

Navigation Acts, the, 67, 108. 

Nebraska, 20, 398. 


Nelson, Lord, 210; portrait, 210. 

Nevada, 398. 

New Amsterdam (see New York), 

New England, early colonial history 
of, 38-42; later colonia. history 
of, 55-58,. 61, 62, 65-66, 78; 
social life in (1763), 101; social 
life in (1789), 184; doctrines of 
secession and nullification in, 
192, 212, 214, 215,_ 221, 317 
(note), manufacturers in, 289, 389, 

New England Confederation, the, 
57, 65-66. 

New France (see Canada). 

New Hampshire, 55. 

New Haven (colony of), 57, 
57 (note), 65. 

New Jersey, 75, 78, 143, 310 (note). 

New Mexico, 46, 272, 280, 281, 306, 
398, 460. 

New Netherland (see New York). 

New Orleans, 85, 95, 219, 289, 331, 
400. 

New Orleans, battle of, 219. 

Newport, 143. 

Newspapers, 103, 187, 244, 300, 368 f 
410. 

New Sweden (see Delaware). 

New York, (city), 50-53, 120, 123 
125, 141, 164, 176, 184, 289, 296 
400. 

New York (state), as a colony, 50- 
53 , 63-64, 68, 78; in the Revolu¬ 
tion, hi, 141, 143, 171; as a 
state, 174, 231, 262 (note), 288 
(note). 

Nicholas, Grand Duke, 490. 

Nonconformists, the, 37. 

Non-intercourse Act, the, 212. 

Norsemen, the, 1 (note). 

North Carolina, 26-27; as a colony, 
68-70; in the Revolution, 119, 
123, 138, 160, 161; as a state, 
174, 176, r79, 190, 262 (note), 
324, 357 , 37 6- 

North Dakota, 398. 

North German Confederation, the, 
43 i, 432 . 

Northeastern boundary, the, 269. 

Northwestern boundary, the, 222. 

Northwest Territory, the, 167, 193. 

Nova Scotia, 89. 

Nullification, in Virginia, 202; in 
Kentucky, 202; in New England, 
215, 221; in South Carolina, 261; 
in other states, 262 (note). 


INDEX 


lxi 


Oglethorpe, James Edward, 80-82, 
89; portrait, 80. 

Ohio, 229, 262 (note). 

Ohio Valley, the, contest for, 90-95. 

Oklahoma, 396-397, 398. 

Oregon , the, 452. 

Oregon Country, the, 206, 276, 277, 
278. 

Oregon (state), 278, 287, 380, 398. 

Otis, James, no. 

Pacific Ocean, discovery of, 17. 

Pacific Railroads, 390-392, 394. 

Panama Canal, the, 452, 454. 

Panama, Republic of, the, 453. 

“Pan-Germanism,” 471. 

Panics, 263, 394, 419. 

Parcel post, the, 464. 

Parkman, Francis, 302. 

Parliament, Acts of, 67, 74, 108,118, 
121, 125. 

“Parson’s Cause,” the, in. 

Parties (political), beginning of, 192. 

Partisan warfare, 157. 

Patroons, the, 51. 

Peace Conferences, of 1861, 319; at 
The Hague, 474; at Paris (1919), 
522. 

Pemberton, John C., 347. 

Peninsular campaign, the, 335. 

Pennsylvania, as a colony, 75-77, 
90-92; in the Revolution, 142, 
143,147,149,153; as a state, 176, 
231, 262 (note). 

Pensions, 418. 

Pequot War, the, 56. 

Perry, Oliver Hazard, 217. 

Perryville, battle of, 332. 

Pershing, John J., 467, 504, 517; 
portrait, 504. 

Personal liberty laws, 306, 310. 

Peru, 18. 

Petain, Henri Philippe, 492. 

Petersburg, siege of, 350, 351, 357- 
358 . 

Petroleum, uses of, 405. 

Pettigrew, J. J., 345 - 

Philadelphia, 77, 125, 147, 154, 184, 
192, 242, 289,400,402. 

Philippines, the, 440, 444, 447, 448, 
450 - 

Pickens, Andrew, 158. 

Pickett, George E., 345. 

Pierce,.Franklin, 307; portrait, 307; 
biography in the Appendix. 

Pilgrim Fathers, the, 37-40. 


Pitcairn, Major, 130. 

Pitt, William, 93,121; portrait, 121. 
Pittsburgh Riot, the, 407. 

Plymouth Colony, the, 38-40. 
Plymouth Company, the, 28. 
Pocahontas, 33 (note); portrait, 33. 
Poe, Edgar Allan, 301; portrait, 
301; biography in the Appendix. 
Poland, 427. 

Polk, James K., 276-282; portrait, 
276; biography in the Appendix. 
Ponce De Leon, 16. 

Pope, John, 335. 

Population, 98, 176, 226, 284, 325, 
388. 

“Popular Sovereignty,” 309. 

Porto Rico, 443, 444, 447, 450. 
Postage stamps, introduction of, 
298. 

Postal Savings Banks, 464. 

Post office, the, 188, 244, 298, 464. 
Powhatan, 33 (note). 

Prescott, Colonel, 134. 

Prescott, William Hickling, 302. 
President, the, 172. 

Primary system, the, 461. 

Prince Henry, the “Navigator,” 3. 
Princeton, battle of, 145. 

Printing press, 103, 299, 300, 410. 
Prisons, 180, 245. 

Privateers and Cruisers (Confed¬ 
erate), 340, 385. 

Proclamation of Emancipation, the, 
341 - 

Prohibition, 300, 527. 

Protectorate, a, the United States 
exercises, 451, 453. 

Prussia, in the Quadruple Alliance, 
252, 424; guarantees the neu¬ 
trality of Belgium, 426. (See also 
Germany.) 

Pulaski, Count, 152. 

Pullman strike, the, 420. 

Pure food laws, 461. 

Puritans, the, 37, 40-42, 58, 59 > 61. 

Quadruple Alliance, the, 252, 424. 
Quakers, the, 60, 61, 74, 75. 

Quebec, 24, 94, 125. 

Quebec Act, the, 125. 

Queen Anne’s War, 88. 

Radio, the, 536. 

Railroads, 263, 290-291, 295-297, 
390-392, 394, 416, 423. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 26; portrait, 25. 


lxii 


INDEX 


Raleigh’s “Lost Colony,” 26-27. 

Randall, James R., 324 (note). 

Reaper, the, 294. 

Recall, the, 462. 

Reconstruction, 371-382. 

Redemptioners, 100. 

Referendum, the, 461. 

Refunding the debt, 386. 

“Regulators,” the, 124. 

“Reign of Terror,” the, 196. 

Religion, 21,23,37, 41,43,44,57,62, 
74- 

Republican party, the formation of, 
311- 

Reserve Bank, the, 466. 

Resumption of specie payments, 386. 

Revere, Paul, 130 (note). 

Revolution, the “Industrial,” 231. 

Revolutions, the American, 118-166; 
the French, 196-198; the Spanish 
American, 251-252; in Europe in 
the nineteenth century, 424-433; 
the Cuban, 437; the Russian, 493. 

Revolutionary War, the, 130-166. 

Rhode Island, as a colony, 56-57, 
65, 78; as a state, 171, 174, 176, 
189, 215, 221. 

Rhodes, James Ford, 410. 

Ribault, Jean, 23. 

Rice, 72, 82, 179, 395. 

Richmond, 162, 324, 327, 332, 351, 
358, 400, 404. 

Riley, James Whitcomb, 410. 

Roanoke Island, 26. 

Robertson, James, 105. 

Rochambeau. Count, 162. 

Rolfe, John, 33 (note). 

Roosevelt, Theodore, in war with 
Spain, 440 (note); as President, 
450-454, 457-46i, 463 ; portrait, 
463; biography in the Appendix. 

Rosecrans, William S., 332, 347, 
348; portrait, 332. 

Roumania, 433, 493, 513. 

Russia, in the Quadruple Alliance, 
252, 424; deterred by the Mon¬ 
roe Doctrine from extending 
possessions in America, 253; con¬ 
dition of in nineteenth century, 
427; goes to aid of Serbia, 479; in 
the World War, 481-494, 510- 
523; revolution in, 493; Bolshev- 
lki in, 512, 513; makes peace 
with Germany, 513. 

Ryan, Father, 409. 


St. Augustine, 24. 

St. Clair, Arthur, 168. 

St. Louis, 243, 289, 400, 412. 

St. Marys, 43. 

St. Miniel, battle of, 517. 

Salem, 40. 

Salem witchcraft, the, 79 (note). 

Salvation Army, the, 508. 

Samoan Islands, the, 449, 450. 

Sampson, William T., 441-443, 

San Francisco, 280, 286. 

San Jacinto, battle of, 274. 

San Juan, assault upon, 443. 

Santa Anna, 274, 280, 281. 

Santa Fe, 46, 272, 280. 

Santiago, battles of, 442. 

Saratoga, battles of, 147. 

Savannah, 81, 156, 164, 238, 296, 
354, 356. 

Savannah, the, 238. 

Schley, W. S., 442, 443; portrait, 
442. 

Schools, 60,62,186,244,300,407-408 

Schouler, James, 410. 

Schuyler, Philip, 146. 

Scott, Winfield, 217, 280-281. 

Seal fisheries, 418. 

Secession, right of, specifically re¬ 
served by Virginia, New York, and 
Rhode Island, 174; threatened 
in Virginia, 202; threatened in 
New England, 212, 214, 221, 317 
(note); threatened in the South, 
258, 282, 305; secession of 

Southern states, 315, 324; doc¬ 
trine of secession, 316. 

Sedition law, the, 201. 

Semmes, Raphael, 340. 

Serapis, the, 154. 

Separatists, the, 37. 

Serbia, gains her independence, 433; 
oppressed by Austria, 476; in 
the Balkan wars, 477; war de¬ 
clared upon by Austria, 478; in 
the World War, 491, 519. 

Seven Days Battle, the, 335. 

Seven Pines, battle of, 333. 

Sevier, John, 159,169; portrait, 169, 

Sewing machine, the, 299. 

Shafter, William R., 442. 

Shaftesbury, Lord, 69. 

Sharpsburg (or Antietam), battle 
of, 335- 

Shay’s Rebellion, 170. 

Shenandoah Valley, the, campaigns 
in. 333, 350. 


INDEX 


lxiii 


Sheridan, Philip H., 350. 

Sherman, William T., 349, 352-354, 
356, 358; portrait, 349; biog¬ 
raphy in the Appendix. 

Shiloh, battle of, 330. 

Shipping, 178, 290 (see also Com¬ 
merce). 

Silver money, 420, 421. 

Simms, William Gilmore, 301; por¬ 
trait, 301; biography, xxxi. 

Sims, William S., 504. 

Sioux Indians, the, war with, 393. 

Sitting Bull, 393. 

Slater, Samuel, 234. 

Slavery, in colonial America, 20, 
35, 99, 111; New England, ex¬ 
tensively engaged in the slave 
trade, 178, 247; sectional con¬ 
troversy about slavery, 192, 236- 
237, 246-248, 264, 266, 281, 

304-318; abolition of, 341, 371. 

Slidell, John, 338. 

Smith, Alfred E., 538. 

Smith, John, 32-33; portrait, 32. 

Socialists, the, 470 (note), 487 
(note), 511. 512, 513. 

Somme, battle of the, 510. 

South, the, conditions in, 100, 178, 
184, 230, 237, 295; secession 
feeling in, 258, 282, 305; life in 
during the War of Secession, 363- 
370; reconstruction of, 371-382; 
the “New South,” 394-396. 

South Carolina, the French in, 23; 
as a colony, 71-72, m; in the 
Revolution, 119, 136, 156-161; as 
a state, 258, 261, 315, 319, 356, 
376, 380, 382. 

South Dakota, 398. 

Spain, condition of in sixteenth 
century, 25; war with Great 
Britain, 89; colonial policy of, 
109; war with Great Britain 
during the Revolution, 153; loses 
her colonies on the American con¬ 
tinent, 251; war with the United 
States, 437-444* 

Spain, war with, 437-444. 

Spanish-America, 6-9, 1I-21, 46- 
48, 251, 271-273. 

Spanish explorations and early 
settlements, 6-9, 16-21. 

Spanish invasion of Georgia, 89. 

“Specie circular,” the, 263. 

Specie payments, resumption of, 386. 

Speculation, 263, 394. 


“Spoils system,” the, 260, 412. 

Spottsylvania, battle of, 350. 

“Squatter sovereignty,” 308. 

Stamp Act, the, 118-121. 

Standing armies, 434, 473. 

Stanton, E. M., 376. 

Star of the West, the, 319. 

“Star Spangled Banner,” the, 219 
(note). 

“Stars and Stripes,” the, 145. 

States rights, doctrine of, 192, 255. 
(See also Nullification and Seces¬ 
sion.) 

Stay laws, 170. 

Steamboat, the, 237, 243, 295, 423. 

Steel, uses of, 402-403. 

Stephens, Alexander H., 319; por¬ 
trait, 320; biography in the 
Appendix. 

Steuben, Baron, 152. 

Stone River (or Murfreesboro), 
battle of, 332. 

Strikes, 407, 415, 416, 420-421, 463. 

Stuyvesant, Peter, 52; portrait, 53. 

Submarine, the, 483. 

Submarine warfare, 499-501, 505, 
506. 

Sub-treasury, the, 264. 

Sumter, Thomas, 158; portrait, 156. 

Supreme Court, the, 172. 

Swedes, the, in Delaware, 52. 

Taft, William H., 464, 465; por¬ 
trait, 464; biography in the 
Appendix. 

Tariff, the, 190, 257, 261, 416-418, 
466. 

Tarleton, Colonel, 160. 

Taylor, Zachary, in the Mexican 
War, 278-280; as President, 304- 
306; portrait, 304; biography in 
the Appendix. 

Tecumseh, 213, 217. 

Telegraph, the, 291, 423; wireless, 
404, 482. 

Telephone, the, 404. 

Tennessee, 105, 169, 181, 229, 288 
(note), 324, 326 (note), 375. 

Tenure-of-office Act, the, 376. 

Territories, origin of, 168. 

Texas, 272, 273, 274, 276, 316, 319 
(note), 329, 376, 379. 

Thomas, George H., 354. 

Thoreau, Henry David, 302. 

Tilden, Samuel J., 380. 

Timrod, Henry, 409. 


Ixiv 


INDEX 


Tippecanoe, battle of, 213. 

Tobacco, 12, 34, 60, 104, 179, 228, 
295, 326, 395. 

Toleration Act, the, 44. 

Tomo-chi-chi, 81. 

Tories, the, 128, 132, 135, 136, 146, 
159, 164. 

Townshend Acts, the, 121. 

Travel, modes of, 103, 185, 229, 239, 
240, 243, 295, 297. 

Treaties of the United States with 
Great Britain, closing the Revo¬ 
lutionary War, 163; with Great 
Britain (Jay’s), 199; with France, 
for the purchase of Louisiana, 204; 
with Great Britain, closing the 
War of 1812, 220; with Great 
Britain, fixing boundaries, 222, 
269, 278; with Spain for the 
purchase of Florida, 224; with 
Mexico, closing war, 281; with 
Great Britain, settling the Ala¬ 
bama claims, 385; with Spain, 
closing war, 443; with Panama, 
for an isthmian canal, 453. 

Trent affair, the, 338. 

Trenton, battle of, 144. 

Trimble, I. R., 345. 

Triple Alliance, the, 473, 490. 

Triple Entente, the, 474, 483. 

“Trusts,” the, 405, 415, 416, 456, 
466. 

Turkey, captures Constantinople, 
2; in nineteenth century, 432- 
433; at war with the Balkan 
states, 477; in the World War, 
488, 491, 519, 521. 

Turner, Nat, insurrection of, 266. 

Tuscarora Indians, the, war with, 
70. 

“Twain, Mark” (see Clemens, 
Samuel L.). 

Tweed Ring, the, 412. 

Tyler, John, as President, 268, 276, 
277; presides over peace con¬ 
ference (1861), 319; portrait, 269; 
biography in the Appendix. 

“Underground Railroad,” the, 310. 

Utah, 306, 398. 

Vagrancy laws, 374. 

Valley Forge, 148. 

Van Buren, Martin, 264, 267; por¬ 
trait, 264; biography in the Ap¬ 
pendix. 


Venezuela, 419. 

Vera Cruz, 280, 467. 

Verdun, battle of, 491. 

Vermont, 55 (note), 227. 

Vespucius, Americus, 10. 

Vicksburg, 331, 346, 347. 

Victor Emanuel II, 429. 

Vienna, Congress of, 423-424. 

Villa, Francisco, 467. 

Vincennes, 104. 

Virginia, as a colony, 31-36, 6o-6i. ; 
73, 90-92, 104; in the Revolu¬ 
tion, hi, 119, 123, 127, 138, 161; 
as a state, 168,171, 174, 179, 202* 
324, 325, 376, 379- 

Virgin Islands, the, 450. 

Vulcanized rubber, 209. 

Wake Island, 449, 450. 

Wars, Indian uprising in Virginia* 
36; Pequot, 56; King Philip’s* 
66; Tuscarora, 70; King Wil¬ 
liam’s, 88; Queen Anne’s, 88; 
King George’s, 89; French and 
Indian, 90-96; Revolutionary, 
130-165; Second War with Great 
Britain, 213-221; Mexican, 278- 
281; War of Secession, 323-361; 
Spanish-American, 437-444; wars 
in Europe in the nineteenth 
century, 423-433; the World 
War, 481-523. 

Washington, George, in French and 
Indian War, 91, 93; in the Revo¬ 
lution, 133, 134, 135, 141-145, 
147 - 149 , i 53 , 154 , 162, 164; in 
the Constitutional Convention, 
171; elected President, 174; as 
President, 189-200; portraits, 90, 
142, and frontispiece; biography 
in the Appendix. 

Washington (city), 202, 218, 351. 

Washington (state), 398. 

Watauga settlements (Tennessee), 
105, 159, 169. 

Wayne, Anthony, 162, 193. 

Weathersford, 217. 

Webster, Daniel, 261, 262, 269, 306 
(note); portrait, 261; biography 
in the Appendix. 

West, the, in colonial times, 104; 
in the Confederation, 167, 169; in 
1789, 177; in 1820, 227-230; in 
1850, 284-289; Spanish and 

Mexican rule in the Southwest, 
271-273; the West at the close 


INDEX 


lxv 


of the nineteenth century, 389- 
393, 397- 

West Indies, the, 7, 46, 47. 

West Virginia, 325, 398. 

Wheat, 60, 295, 388, 393, 395. 

Wheeler, Joseph, 354, 356, 442; 
portrait, 443- 

Whigs in the Revolution, 128. 

Whigs (political party), 267. 

Whiskey Insurrection, the, 194. 

“Whiskey Ring,” the, 412. 

White, John, 26. 

Whitman, Marcus, 276. 

Whitney, Eli, 235; biography in 
the Appendix. 

Whittier, John Greenleaf, 302; 
biography in the Appendix. 

Wilderness, the battle of, 350. 

Wilkes, Charles, 339. 

William and Mary, 78, 79, 87. 

William and Mary College, 60 
(note). 

William I of Germany, 432. 

William II of Germany, 470, 471, 
472. 

Williams, Roger, 56. 

Williamsburg, 60. 


Wilmington, 354. 

Wilmot Proviso, the, 281. 

Wilson, Woodrow, as author, 410; 
as President, 465-467, 496-523; 
portrait, 465; biography in the 
Appendix. 

Winthrop, John, 41. 

Wireless telegraphy, 404, 482. 

Wisconsin, 284. 

Witchcraft delusion, the, 79 (note). 

Wolfe, James, 94; portrait, 94. 

Woman’s Rights, 300, 409, 527. 

World Court, the, 535. 

Writs of Assistance, no. 

Wyoming, 398. 

“X. Y. Z.” Affair, the, 200. 

Yorktown, surrender of Cornwallis 
at, 162. 

Young Men’s Christian Association, 
508. 

Young Women’s Christian Associa¬ 
tion, 508. 

Ypres, first battle of, 486; second 
battle of, 490. 

Yser, battle of, 486. 


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